Brief history of lamps

Throughout the entire stage of human existence, light accompanied him. And if at the beginning, as artificial light Primitive torches and fires were used, but with the development of civilization, lighting fixtures changed greatly. How did sconce lamps appear? To the inhabitants Ancient Egypt invention of the first oil lamps.

Such primitive lamps were meter-high columns with bowls of oil placed on them. These unique lamps were usually made in the shape of a flower. In Ancient Greece, vessels with hot coals or tarred were used for these purposes. wood shavings. Such lamps were made of clay and varnished. Hanging metal lamps were first mentioned during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine. These lamps came to Rus' in bulk after the adoption of Christianity and were called chandeliers. The chandelier is considered the prototype of modern chandeliers.

The word “chandelier” itself appeared later, in the 17th century, in France, and means “to illuminate.” At the beginning of the nineteenth century, with the advent of oil lamp chandeliers, the need to use lamps with candles was eliminated, and the need to direct light gave rise to lampshades. Since the second half of the 19th century, kerosene lamps gained enormous popularity, which were subsequently replaced by lamps with electric lamps. A variety of materials began to be used to make chandeliers: metal, glass, fabric, wood and plastic.

“The light of fire, daily dispelling darkness and gloom... This is familiar, everyday and necessary for a person in any era. People were constantly forced to turn to lighting devices and think about how to preserve their dim, flickering flame. Time passed, centuries passed centuries, and with them changes occurred in the ways of maintaining light."

There is no doubt that initially people used fire flames as lighting devices, as evidenced by the remains of ancient hearths, which undoubtedly served not only as a heating device, but also partly as a lighting device and torch. Primitive man, having received divine fire into his hands, was able not only to warm and feed himself, but also for the first time illuminated the dark arches of his cave.

Researchers have discovered many images of torches from Greek and Roman times, although for obvious reasons they themselves have not reached us. There were practically no significant changes in the design of this simplest lighting device, with the exception of the combustible materials themselves. The main disadvantage of a torch is soot, so the ancient Greeks already thought about ventilation of rooms and built some kind of chimneys. “The trunk of a date tree made of copper, placed above the lamp and reaching to the roof, draws the soot out,” wrote the ancient Greek historian Pausanias. There were special openings to remove smoke from black-heated houses.

The importance of the torch in the life of ancient Greek society can be evidenced by the fact that in Athens, during the sacred holiday of the Great Panathenaia, competitions were held in lampadodromy - a race with torches, in which to win it was necessary not only to come running first, but also to keep the fire burning. In the culture of the Ancient East, torches played a special role. King Hammurabi of Babylon, like his predecessors, began his reign with the declaration of “justice”, i.e. forgiveness of all debts. Standing on top of the ziggurat, he lit the “golden torch”, seeing the fire of which, residents of surrounding towns and villages also lit torches and transmitted the good news throughout the country. By the way, this kind of light signaling was actively used in military affairs in all countries of the Ancient World, notifying internal areas of an enemy attack.

Torches helped solve lighting problems at a later time, right up to the Middle Ages. The demand for them was always high. Thus, the monks of Constantinople in the 5th century. they were specially made for sale, and the money received was invested in the purchase of threads and other necessary raw materials. "The Book of the Eparch" - a collection of laws for Constantinople traders and artisans of the late 9th century. - records that part of the income generated by the ergastirium (workshop) was allocated for the purchase of torches.

Roman “round” lamps, covered with red varnish characteristic of the first centuries of our era. Found in various cities of the Northern Black Sea region. I-II centuries AD

The first lamps

Use of clays

The use of specially shaped fired vessels as lighting devices began in the Levant at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. A little later, in the late Minoan period, they became widespread in Crete. Archaeologists discovered them in small quantities during excavations of various Greek cities in the layers of the X-VIII centuries. BC. In later layers they are found very often, which indicates that they began to be produced en masse from the 7th century. BC.

Animal fat and oil (primarily olive) were used as fuel in the lamps. The design and configuration of lighting fixtures depended on various types flammable materials. Thus, lamps fueled with animal fat were always open, and the wick, made of plant fibers, floated freely in the fat, and sometimes it was bent onto the wall of the lamp. This is evidenced by traces of flame found on the vast majority of specimens. Often the lamps had thick walls; moreover, many molded lamps were designed specifically for animal fat. An interesting example can be given: during excavations of “barbarian” settlements and burial grounds around the ancient Greek city of Chersonese, very few lamps were discovered. There is no doubt that this is due to the adherence of these tribes to other types of lighting devices - open bowls, for which animal fat was used, which, apparently, was explained not only by another cultural tradition of the late Scythians, but also comparatively high prices for olive oil, which was used to fill antique lamps.

Despite its relatively small size, depending on the thickness of the wick, the lamp could burn from 30-40 minutes to 2-3 hours, giving relatively little light. Nevertheless, modern experiments have shown that with two lit lamps it is quite possible to read.

Due to the ease of manufacture, apparently, the lamps were produced in the same place as ceramics, and practically did not require additional equipment. Specialized workshops for the production of lighting devices appeared only in Hellenistic times, a typical example is the large-scale production of lamps on the Cnidus Peninsula in Asia Minor.

The most common type of early Greek lamps are open lamps with a sleeve in the center (conical or cylindrical in shape). This sleeve was made for the finger of the hand, the presence of which provided the lamp with greater stability when carried, or for a stand on which it was easier to mount the lamp (see figure). Most of the lamps had handles (see figure), the shape of which often depended solely on fashion, the wishes of the customer or the taste of the craftsman. Thus, in ancient Greek vase painting we find images of a woman holding a lamp with a horizontal handle (Attic red-figure jug of the 5th century BC, Metropolitan Museum), or Hermes carrying a lamp with a vertical handle (bell-shaped crater, Vatican Museum). Lamps of the same shape could be made without bushings. Most lamps of the 6th-5th centuries. BC. were low and contained a relatively small volume of oil. Over time, the lamp’s container became deeper (and therefore more voluminous), and the walls covered it more and more.

With the spread of the technique of stamping in the form in Hellenistic times, the technology for making lamps improved, and they began to be decorated with flowers, rosettes, and various palmettes. The outside surface of the lamp is coated with a shiny black or red varnish. Sometimes the same coating is done from the inside - so that the oil does not absorb into the porous clay (see figure).

The black-lacquered lamps were made in Athens. Olvia, Ukraine. IV-III centuries BC.

Lamps from Roman times

The heyday of the clay lamp was the era of the Roman Empire. The transformation of territories that were colossal even by modern standards into a single market stimulated not only the formation of tastes and traditions, but also the emergence of the first powerful industrial centers for the production of ceramic products, capable of filling the entire Mediterranean with their simple products. It is no coincidence that from this moment on, the compactness of the lamp and ease of manufacture were put at the forefront, which reduced its cost and facilitated transportation. In the global empire, goods made in Italy, Greece and Egypt were easily transported by the ubiquitous Roman traders to the edges of the ecumene, the Crimea and the Caucasus.

The shields of the lamps were decorated with various images - from the acts of deities to gladiator fights and erotic scenes (see figure). This is a real encyclopedia of ancient life. The lamp from Chersonesos depicts a naked Venus being given a sword and helmet by Eros, standing in front of her. This plot is closely connected with the symbol of the political program of Julius Caesar, who always represented Venus as the founder of the Julius family. Apparently, one of the Chersonesos in this way demonstrated their political loyalty to the Roman dictator, who gave Chersonesos independence.

Ancient Greek open lamps made on a potter's wheel. The sleeve in the center of these lamps had a corresponding recess on the inside and made it easier to carry the lamp. Initially, such lamps came to the Northern Black Sea region from the Ionian cities of Asia Minor, but then it was established own production. VI-V centuries BC.

Brand

The lamps of famous workshops were marked with the mark of the master. Illegal copying of someone else's, popular trademark is by no means an invention of the New Age, and in the Roman provinces crooked lamps with poorly printed designs were often sold, on which proudly stood the mark of, for example, Northern Italian workshops or simply a random set of letters. This can be easily traced on the basis of the so-called Firmalampen, widespread in the territory of modern Romania and Bulgaria.

Clay lamps were in every residential building, workshop, and shop: they were hung in front of the entrance, in porticos, placed in niches in the walls or simply on the ground, at the door thresholds. The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus noted that the illumination of Antioch at night was not inferior in strength to daylight. Of course, the lamp occupied its rightful place in Roman brothels - lupanars, often, in addition to the bed, being the only decoration of a modest interior.

Once on the market, anyone could choose a lamp according to their taste, mood and purpose. From the baskets standing around the merchant, one could take a lamp decorated with the image of a deity (the Olympians peacefully coexisted with the Egyptian gods, the Jewish menorah or the Christian sacred monogram), an animal or a frivolous scene, which even today can make an inexperienced viewer blush. Apparently, in the workshop it was possible to order a lamp with any image.

Candelabra

Bronze candelabra served as ceremonial lighting fixtures, which were used in everyday life only by the elite of society. Typically, such a candelabra was made in the form of a multifaceted rod on three lion paws; it was often crowned with an Ionian capital with a figurine standing on it or a stand on which a candle could be mounted or an ordinary clay lamp could be placed. Interestingly, primitive candelabra were also used by barbarians, such as the Sarmatians. Most often they were made of iron, forged by local craftsmen who hardly cared about the beauty of their products.

Bosporan multi-arm lamps. Panticapaeum. I century BC.

Unquenchable light

Of course, it wasn’t just the apartment building that was illuminated by the fire. It can be assumed that an unquenchable fire burned in the temples in honor of various deities. “And Callimachus made a golden lamp for the goddess. Having filled the lamp with oil, the Athenians expect the same day next year; the oil in the lamp is enough for the entire time from time to time, while the lamp burns both day and night” (Paus., I, XXVI, 6-7). The altar and the lamp were repeatedly mentioned together by ancient authors. Lamps were also used in rituals dedicated to the underground gods; they were also used in witchcraft. An echo of the latter was the Arabic tale about Aladdin's lamp - you just need to rub an old copper lamp for an almighty genie to appear from there.

In addition, the light of the lamp accompanied the deceased on his final journey, illuminating the road to eternity with a dim flicker. Even the Vestals, who were walled up alive in a grave for violating their vow of virginity, were left with a flickering lamp along with a small supply of food and water.

I am considered one lamp

To illuminate public buildings and temples, along with torches and ordinary lamps, multi-lane lamps could be used (see figure). The relatively small volume of the oil container, combined with a large number of horns, each of which had a small tongue of flame, required constant replenishment with oil fat. This may indirectly indicate the sacred load that a lighting device with several horns could have been endowed with. At the same time, one cannot help but recall one of the famous epigrams of the Roman master of satire Martial (XIV, 41), where a slightly different version of the purpose of multi-armed lamps is given:

A multi-arm lamp found in one of the settlements on the territory of the modern Taman Peninsula. IV-V centuries AD

In late antiquity, there was a tendency to coarse the shapes of clay lamps, as well as their decor. The products coming out of the master's hands were filled with a new spirit - the spirit of cold, soulless stylization. Everything was designed for mass production and sales, for demand from the broadest sections of the population with their simple needs.

Bronze chandeliers - lampadophores of the Byzantine era with numerous horns ending in horizontal rings - were clearly intended for the installation of glass lamps. It was at this time that the formerly important role of clay lamps in the cult rite disappeared. According to Paul Silentiarius (563), the splendor of the interior of St. Sophia in the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, was glass lamps, including carved ones, and the Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, describing the funeral of Emperor Tiberius II in 582, recalled how the sad singing of psalms “with lit lamps” lasted all night.

Already from the 4th century. Glass goblets with a conical or cylindrical body, which were in use until the 6th century, were in wide circulation in all provinces of the vast Roman Empire. Their use as lighting devices is evidenced by the finds of such lamps with traces of oil on the walls, as well as images of similar vessels, where they are suspended at the ends of the Jewish seven-branched menorah. From the very beginning, these products were not inferior in popularity to clay lamps. Water was poured into them, and on top of it was a layer of oil, into which the wick was lowered.

From the end of the 5th century. and until the 8th century. Among the lighting devices, the type of lamp with a hemispherical or cylindrical wide body and a narrow leg, which was inserted into the lampadophore, began to dominate. Apparently, it was precisely such lighting devices that the Syrian chronicler Yeshu Stylite had in mind when he wrote that Anastasius, the mayor of Edessa, at the end of the 5th century. ordered artisans on the eve of every Sunday to hang crosses with five lit “luminaries” over their shops.
The decline in the production of traditional clay lamps indicates the predominance, since the early Middle Ages, of new methods of lighting, which confidently crowded out the old ones. In addition to glass lamps, only candles could play such a role, which gradually found their most widespread use among lighting devices. A lot of wax candles were required on church holidays, during special events, funerals, and fairs that attracted a lot of people. For example, when the body of Simeon Stylites was being prepared for burial in 459, “... the mountain was not visible from the crowd, candles, incense and burning lamps,” and then the entire city came out to meet the funeral procession “... with candles and chants ". There were different candles - ordinary ones, which cost less, and more expensive ones, with a special coating, sometimes even decorated with Christian symbols. The goods were sold by weight.

The final victory of candles in the lighting market in Byzantine society most likely could have occurred due to the loss of sources of external supplies of olive oil during the aggressive campaigns of the Arab Caliphate. Byzantium's loss of its African possessions - longtime major exporters of olive oil - may well have tipped the market scales in favor of wax candles.

Apparently, the specialty of a candle maker (kirularia) in the Byzantine city was widespread and, apparently, provided a good income. Kirulariy produced and sold candles different types, quality, cost, and also dealt with the transfusion of broken ones. When Deacon Stefan, who bought expensive candles “for a lot of money” in a candle maker’s shop, slipped and broke them, he “returned the fragments to the ergastiriium.” They tried to make the use of candles waste-free: they valued wax as a valuable raw material and, having collected the cinders and the wax that had melted onto the edges of the candlestick in the temple, they again put it into processing.

Subsequent centuries did not bring visible innovations in the design of lighting devices. The approaching gloomy European Middle Ages made do with torches and candles, the latter often being greasy. The stench emanating from such candles did not bother the medieval inhabitants of castles and town houses, whose entire worldly life was only a prelude to eternal life filled with bright light...

Lamp with a relief image of a bird. Chersonesos. V-VI centuries AD

Ancient Rus'

In Ancient Rus', the main lighting device was a lit torch mounted on a stand; open lamps filled with fat were also used. Rich houses could have bronze lamps or imported multi-tiered lamps - lustrons. Wax, which traditionally served as an important export product, was also widespread in Rus', because beekeeping was one of the most important occupations of the population. As a result, the wax candle illuminated both the house of a rich citizen and the temple. At a later time, a lit torch was inserted into special stands - iron-forged lights, which illuminated even a boyar's house. Inadequate lighting fixtures have repeatedly led to fires in all-wooden cities. Thus, Russian chronicles are replete with references to how, for example, “Moscow burned down from one candle.”

New times stood on the threshold, when with the invention of gas burners, kerosene lamps, and then electricity, the entire lighting system fundamentally changed, and the previous lighting devices sank into oblivion. However, to this day candles and small lamps filled with oil are popular, and who among us has not walked at night towards a flickering light that poorly illuminates the space around us...

Let's imagine that your home is a theater stage. There may be no scenery, curtains or technical devices for visual effects, but it is within its walls that the most authentic life dramas and comedies are played out.

If you're a fan of antiques and enjoy incorporating vintage pieces into your home, you'll want to take a look at today's Design Museum post about gorgeous, and sometimes a little pretentious, vintage lamps.

The term "antique" is a bit of a stretch in this context, since light bulbs weren't invented until 1879, and all antique lighting used only candles and oil. Then gas lamps appeared, the predecessors of electric lamps.

In this spacious lobby, the antique crystal and bronze chandelier really sets the tone and enhances the beauty of other similarly styled pieces, including desk lamp and paintings.

Chandeliers, like any other overhead lighting devices, are best connected through a power regulator.

What could be more beautiful than an exquisite chandelier with sparkling pendants? These are like elegant diamond earrings in a lady's evening dress, creating chic and solemnity. And we would like to remind you that their use should not be limited to dining rooms and hallways. In this kitchen, for example, a luxurious Murano glass chandelier is combined with a carved sideboard, and together they create intrigue in a seemingly very cold space.

Of course, not all chandeliers look so pompous. Here is a classic example of a modernized gas lamp from 1895 with exquisite lace shades. The right lamp is a powerful tool that allows you to create the right mood.

This three-arm chandelier is marked with the year of manufacture - 1920. Blackened gilding elegantly emphasizes the creamy hue of the fragile matte shades. Such a device should decorate a library or office.

Have you ever heard of girandole? This is a special lamp from the 19th century that is installed on a table. Many of them are still equipped with candlesticks, but there are also electrical modifications.

They look exceptionally good on small coffee tables, but can be part of a dinner setting in the evening if you choose a version with candles or dim bulbs.

Despite the fact that in this interior the girandole is very ambiguously combined with Asian furniture, it remains the most elegant lamp of all. Its faceted crystals shine in a special way, creating a romantic atmosphere.

In front of you is a pair of girandoles with candles and a mirror. It's easy to imagine them framing a picture above a fireplace or illuminating the surface of a dining room buffet.

Sconces are a very important and often overlooked type of lamp. The photo shows a classic two-horn example from the 1900s (most likely from France). It is customary to hang such sconces in the hallway, but one can imagine a more unexpected option - among the accumulation of photographs in the living room, for example. And there are also versions with miniature lampshades that are attached directly to the light bulb.

Of course, there are more ancient lamps than chandeliers and sconces. Oil lamps have been used since biblical times, and today you can find some stunning examples from the Victorian era. We see an original copy with the image of a girl, a swan and cherubs, capable of bringing an antique mood to the corresponding interior.

Do any of you play bouillotte? This is a gambling card game, popular in 18th century France, which was played under the light of special lamps, since then also called bouillottes. The lampshade could be lowered higher or lower, leaving the participants' faces in shadow. Dice were held in a special bowl at the base of the lamp.

In this stunningly decorated office, a classic antique lamp, the kind you've probably seen in movies or paintings, is very appropriate. However, it can be imagined in a different setting.

And here we see a bouillette that decorates an antique buffet and does not clash at all with the charming chandelier above the breakfast table. Once again we are convinced that antique lamps are necessary to create a nostalgic atmosphere in a properly furnished interior.

There are many antique items that are not lamps, but can easily be turned into them. In the photo there are table lamps, the base of which is an old butter churner. A charming peasant look in a classic rustic interior.

But the stand of this lamp is made from an antique Chinese ginger vase. A little creativity and effort helped create a unique item that will decorate a traditional living room.

The antique figurine of the Virgin Mary was not easy to spot in the depths of the antique shop, but without it such an elegant table lamp would not have been possible.

The very first source of artificial light was, as already mentioned, a hearth. Thus, initially the living space was illuminated by one source located in the center. The need for additional side lighting arose simultaneously with the need for humans to express themselves in rock paintings. He was helped in his work by a torch, which was installed in the cracks between the stones. In the Middle Ages, forged clamps began to be used to strengthen the torch on the plane of the wall. It was this simple device that served as the prototype for the sconce.

In Greece and Rome, floor lamps were widespread, consisting of a tripod and a bowl with a flammable substance (often with aromatic additives). A later modification of this lamp is the candelabra. Unlike the tripod, it had a single support, wide at the base. In different cultures, the same lamp could be called differently. For example, shandalom among the Persians or a menorah among the Jews.

Another lighting device known since those times is the lampadarium. Like the candelabra, it was stationary. Pendant lamps were called lampions and lamps and consisted of one or more oval bowls attached to ceiling beams or consoles. Oil, animal fat or petroleum were poured into the bowls. A wick twisted from plant fibers was lowered into the flammable liquid.

The appearance of the candle was a major breakthrough in the creation of new types of lamps. It was in many ways more convenient than all other devices - it smoked less, and it turned out to be significantly more economical and easier to manufacture. It was first made from animal fat, and then from beeswax with a reed wick. Later, the wick began to be made from cotton or hemp fibers. The candle gave birth to a whole galaxy of lamps. The candelabra has become an elegant branched structure. At the end of the 17th century, the chandelier was finally formed. Palace chandeliers with hundreds of candles illuminated the huge ballrooms. In the spaces between the windows the sconces glowed just as brightly. The corridors were lit by ornate candelabra. All of them were reflected in numerous mirrors and their gilded frames. Candles were extinguished with metal caps on long handles. The chandelier consisted of a massive metal frame and a large number of glass pendants (transparent or colored) or natural stones. It could weigh about a ton. To lower such a structure, light the candles, and then raise it all, a powerful mechanism was required.

The era of kerosene that followed gave us a hit in the form of the bat lamp. The design of kerosene lamps was quite sophisticated (one need only remember the famous Tiffany table lamps). Until now, these not very practical, but trouble-free lamps in country life are associated with the era of decadence. And the above-mentioned “bat” was repeatedly used by designers to create new varieties of lamps in industrial style. This solution looks good in kitchens and children's rooms. And numerous iterations of table lamps and bedside lamps from the Art Nouveau era perfectly complement the interiors of bedrooms and offices. Humble workers - gas lamps made a real revolution in street lighting. Their interior variety, gas jets, coexisted peacefully with kerosene lamps. Both of them smoked desperately and were not, as they say, environmentally friendly. This is probably why it was worth inventing electricity.

Electricity is familiar and commonplace. There are a great variety of electric lamps. The variety of their shapes and materials is simply incredible. We'll talk more about them later. For now, I would just like to summarize all of the above.

In primitive dwellings primitive man there was both natural and artificial lighting. Natural was divided into top (chimney) and side (inlet). The artificial was central (hearth) and lateral (torch).

In the Middle Ages, before the advent of candles, oil lamps were used. Very few early candlesticks have survived, as during the wars they were melted down into coins. After the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, candlesticks were forged from thin sheet metal.

By the end of the seventeenth century. skilled Huguenot craftsmen, who fled from France from religious persecution, introduced the practice of casting candlesticks from solid silver. The base, stand (leg) and the candlestick itself were cast separately and then soldered. Cast candlesticks were heavy, durable, often with complex relief decoration.

Fashion of the early 18th century. replaced by simple, minimally decorated candlesticks in the 1730s. richer ornamentation. Some talented craftsmen adopted the lush French Rococo style. The most elegant candlesticks of that time feature skillfully cast stands in the form of female figures holding candle sockets above their heads. By 1780, fashionable ornate ornamentation gave way to the restrained decor of the neoclassical period. At the same time, the growth of industrial centers such as Birmingham and Sheffield ensured the mass production of candlesticks. Now they were minted from sheet silver, and the hollow parts were filled with resin, wood, and sometimes metal for stability.

To produce less expensive candlesticks in Birmingham and Sheffield, a mechanical coining process involving setting silver sheet into a mold with a relief design was used (from the 1760s).

Like candlesticks, candelabras were often paired. They came into use from the middle of the 17th century, but most of the surviving copies date back to the 18th - 19th centuries. At first, candelabra were made with two simple horns. The number of horns increased from the end of the 18th century, when lunchtime moved from daytime to evening.

A lot of useful accessories, including tongs for removing carbon deposits and candlesticks for thin candles, were also made of silver. Candle decarbonizer - a tool with two rings, like scissors, with a small box, was used to trim burnt wicks until the invention of the self-absorbing wick in the 1820s. Small candlesticks were intended for thin candles from which to light a pipe and illuminate desks or melted wax to seal letters.

In the 19th century the decorative style, in accordance with Victorian taste, acquired an exaggerated pretentiousness. IN last years centuries, casting was rarely resorted to, since this method of processing silver became prohibitively expensive, and the mechanization of production implied the production of more sets rather than paired candlesticks or candelabra.

At the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries. Many silversmiths resisted mass production. They focused on working in a medieval handcraft style using premium materials and simple designs in the spirit of Japanese art. From Arts and Crafts and Art Nouveau styles to Art Deco from the 20th century masters. managed to embrace both the revival of historical styles and minimalist modern design.

The first lamps

The first lighting device was apparently a stone vessel containing the fat of some animal and dry grass. Torches with such contents were capable of illuminating the road on dark nights and gloomy vaults of caves.

Then prototypes of candles appeared - hollow reed stalks filled with the same fat. These devices produced a lot of soot, and they were replaced by others, made of beeswax, with a cotton wick. A splinter was also used - a thin sliver that was clamped with a split rod.

Just think that until the 19th century there were no other sources of lighting for indoors, except candles, there were no torches or oil lamps!

To light from a small flame candles there were more, in large palaces they placed mirrors next to them - it was much brighter.

Evolution lamps expanded this subject range. The first candelabra appeared - candlesticks for one or more candles, then pendant ones appeared lamps(chorus and chandelier). They were hung on chains in the center of churches or palaces, and were decorated with images of birds and the sun. There were also devices for several lamps - lampadarias.

Aromatic oils, petroleum and kerosene were used as flammable liquids.

The Russians took the lead in inventing the first light bulb: electrical engineer Alexander Lodygin in 1872 invented an incandescent lamp consisting of needles wrapped in threads. Such lamps could burn for 40 hours.

Lodygin was the first to discover the properties of tungsten, which became widely used in the production of lamps. And finally, in 1799, the Italian physicist Volt created the first chemical current source.

Later, fluorescent and very economical halogen lamps appeared.

History of the development of artificial lighting devices

Getting to know the history of the development of household lamps helps to better understand the relationship and mutual influence of technology and culture in these objects of the home environment, which are extremely diverse in their forms. We find the first literary mention of a lamp in Homer. When describing Odysseus and Telemachus carrying out the weapons of the suitors, it is said: “... and Pallas Athena, invisibly holding a golden lamp, shined upon them.”

The centuries-old history of household lamps demonstrates the dependence of their shape on the development of artificial lighting technology, materials and manufacturing technology, architecture, decorative and applied arts and, finally, design.

The sources of artificial light of the ancient world were torches, torches and oil lamps. Oil lamps consisted of a vessel for hemp or linseed oil and a wick. The material for their manufacture was most often clay, less often bronze. Many examples of similar lamps from the period of ancient Greece and Rome have survived. Due to the weak light intensity of one wick, oil vessels were equipped with several wicks, and the composition of one lamp sometimes included several vessels. A significant achievement of artificial lighting technology was the creation in the 5th century. BC e. Callimachus wicked from the so-called Carpasian flax, a fireproof material reminiscent of asbestos, mined on the island of Crete. Such an “unquenchable fire” burned for seven centuries in the sanctuary of Athena in the Erechtheion. He is mentioned in the “Descriptions of Hellas” in the 2nd century. n. e. traveler and geographer Pausanias.

As a widespread household item, lamps became objects of artistic creativity in ancient times. Even at that time, their shapes and designs were very diverse. At the same time, almost all types of lamps that exist today appeared in terms of the method and location of their installation.

Historically analyzing the evolution of the form of household lamps, one can trace the emergence and development of their structures and decor. At the same time, stable structures that do not depend on changes in architectural and artistic styles are easily identified. Many types of structures, having arisen in ancient times, have survived to this day. Other types of structures have proven to be less durable. For example, with the advent of electricity, systems that existed in the 19th century became a thing of the past. portable kerosene mug lamps. Among the surviving structures are pendant lamps with a ring or horn structure, table lamps with a central post, and wall lamps of the “sconce” (arm) type. These structures arose and developed during a period when the most common source of light was a candle.

The main reason for preserving the original structures is their expediency and rationality, as well as a certain inertia of human consciousness and people’s commitment to stereotypes. For example, the structure of a table candle lamp with a central post in the 19th century. was also used for kerosene lamps, although in this case it is less appropriate. In this case, it was necessary to mask the necessary fuel tank.

With the advent of electric lighting, new types of structures were formed that were rational with a new light source. However, many types of structures that cannot be classified as rational continue to be used in electric lamps. Today we see numerous examples of the use of structures and shapes characteristic of candle and kerosene lamps.

For many centuries, the lamp was considered as an integral element of the interior of a home. Therefore, its form and decor developed in close connection with the form of interior equipment and were subject to stylistic trends in this area.

The lamp has always been an object of professional and folk decorative art. During the times of Ancient Greece, Etruria and Rome, along with richly decorated bronze lamps, oil lamps from baked clay were made in large quantities. Examples of such ancient samples include lamps found during excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii back in the 18th century. and lamps from excavations in Chersonesos already in our time (Fig. 1).

Architectural motifs, images of people and animals, plant and geometric patterns were widely used to decorate bronze lamps. Already at that time it was easy to notice many similarities in the elements of lamps and furniture. Etruscan candelabra, like furniture, had supports in the form of human legs or animal paws. Silicate glass appears as a diffuser (or rather to protect the flame from gusts of wind) in bronze oil lamps.

Clay oil lamps used in homes ordinary people, also different in shape. However, they only use animal motifs and flora and there are no architectural motifs. Most often, such lamps were made portable.

For many centuries, in peasant houses in many Northern European countries, including Russia, the main source of light was a torch. To maintain the flame of a burning splinter and to store new splinters, so-called lights were used. Most often they were forged from metal. Sometimes they were used as a base wooden parts. The lights were very diverse; they were decorated with various metal curls, and the wooden parts were carved and sometimes covered with painting.

For many centuries, artificial lighting was provided by candles. Safer and easier to use, already in the 12th century. in Ancient Rus' they were widely used. Tallow candles appeared first, then wax, stearin, paraffin, and spermaceti candles, which burned longer and produced less soot and smoke. All lighting fixtures of the 16th-18th centuries. were various designs, with profits attached to them, into which candles were inserted. The most common were candlesticks (shandals) for various numbers of candles, for the manufacture of which wood, bone, glass and porcelain were used, but the most common was durable fire-resistant metal.

With the development of foundry in Kievan Rus back in the 9th century. Copper and silver chandeliers and candlesticks are made. The name “panikadil” or “polycadil” comes from the Greek word “polykandelon”, meaning multi-candlestick. The most stable composition of the chandelier consisted of a central core structure with complex balusters (and later with balls), from which multi-tiered candlesticks branched off (Fig. 4). In later times, the design of chandeliers formed the basis for the creation of many chandeliers.

Along with the chandelier, in Rus' there was an even more ancient form of lamps - horos, which were like a round bowl suspended on chains and framed by a ring in which candles were installed. Interesting samples choirs are available in the Faceted Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin.

Complex and large lamps were used mainly in churches, palaces and houses of rich people. Such lamps, as a rule, differed not only in size (the diameter of the chandelier in some churches reached 3 m), but also in their magnificent decoration, the use of relief carvings, artistic casting, valuable materials, painting, and gilding.

A special place in the history of the development of lamps is occupied by lanterns (“running” or “remote”), which were used on the most solemn occasions (religious holidays, during religious processions, wedding and funeral ceremonies) and therefore decorated with special luxury. Lanterns were usually hexagonal in shape with mica walls that protected the candle flame from the wind.

With the development of construction and architecture in the 18th century. Numerous large mansions with rich interior decoration appeared. All this created a need for new, more efficient lamps, which were “wall lamps” and chandeliers. Wall lamps were shiny copper flat or concave reflectors of round, octagonal or shaped shapes with candlesticks attached to them, which were hung on the wall. The bright surfaces of the walls that attracted attention were engraved, minted, and decorated with patterns and images.

The most advanced in lighting and architectural terms were multi-candle chandeliers with crystal and colored glass. These lamps, varied in shape, size, materials, and manufacturing technology, are a product of the corresponding era, both in architectural and technical design. The use of low-power light sources such as candles led to the need to create large pendant lamps with a large number candles. At the same time, medieval architects had to solve the complex problem of compositionally linking weak spots of individual candles scattered in a large volume into a single whole. The creation of a single luminous volume of the lamp was ensured by using different decorative glass and, above all, crystal. In this regard, it is necessary to note the exceptional influence on the development of lamps by the formation and improvement of glass production.

In ancient times, glass was expensive and of poor quality. As artistic glassmaking develops, glass for lamps changes and takes on different shapes and colors. Glass is used as a main material for the first time in Venetian candle chandeliers. The main method of their manufacture was the sculpting of parts from a cooling mass. clear glass, in which the Venetians were distinguished by unsurpassed virtuoso skill. A Venetian molded glass chandelier is usually assembled from a bunch of glass stems freely “growing” upward from one central glass bowl. The stems are decorated with flowers, leaves, often intertwined, and candlesticks are installed in the flowers; chains of glass rings fall in garlands; the central metal rod is hidden in glass decorations. Venetian chandeliers, girandoles, and candelabra were typical works of the Baroque.

Lamps made of raw glass (including Venetian molded glass) are being replaced by crystal lamps, which have attracted exceptional and constant interest among architects to this day. The crystal candle chandelier greatly increased the visible number of light spots compared to the number of candles used, and created a decorative play of light on small and large faceted glass parts, based on the refraction and reflection of light, as well as on the effect of light dispersion by triangular prismatic elements. The moving flame of light together with the crystal created a different visual effect under different viewing directions. Crystal playing with light, slightly oscillating under the influence of rising currents warm air, united a single composition of dim candles and created an exceptional emotional effect, turning the lamp into a light-colored structure, unrivaled in its decorative effect.

Artificial crystal, i.e. glass, got its name from the mineral rock crystal. Crystal is soft, easy to machine - cutting, deep grinding, polishing. Cut crystal first appeared in Bohemia in the 17th century; in the 18th century In England, purer and softer lead crystal appeared. The basis of domestic chandeliers of the first half of the 18th century. lies in the use of crystal jewelry made of stylized oak leaves, star-shaped rosettes, figured “vases” and balls, manufactured at the glass factory in Yamburg, and then at the St. Petersburg factory. Russian artistic glassmaking is responsible for the appearance of colored glass in chandeliers. Blue and pink glass were most often used in the 70s and 80s of the 18th century, ruby ​​and emerald green - at the end of this century. A special place in the history of the development of lamps is occupied by products of Tula craftsmen made of steel.

In subsequent years, compositional techniques were developed for placing crystal elements in lamps of various structures, as well as the shapes of these elements depending on the technology of their manufacture and the prevailing architectural and artistic style.

The appearance of crystal lamps coincided with the heyday of the Baroque style. However, the artistic merits of crystal were most fully revealed during the period of dominance of Rococo, Classicism and Empire style. Excellent examples of crystal lamps were created by Russian architects of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

In the middle of the 18th century. At the same time, “sets” or “sets” appear in furniture and lamps, consisting of products with different installation methods, united by a single artistic solution.

As porcelain spread in Europe, it began to be used in decorative elements of lamps.

At the end of the 18th – beginning of the 19th centuries. Lamps in which bronze replaces other materials, including glass, are becoming increasingly widespread. At the same time, chandeliers with oil lamps appeared, which had significant advantages due to their greater brightness and operating time. In these lamps, a reservoir with viscous oils was placed above the burners, which ensured a flow of fuel to the wick. Tube glasses appeared that protected the flame from exposure air flow, which created draft and reduced soot.

Important stages in the development of lamps were the creation of “Carcel” and kerosene lamps. The first of them, invented by the Frenchman Carcel, had oil tanks with a “clock” mechanism that pumped oil into the burner. The kerosene lamp was invented by the Pole Łukasiewicz in 1853. The fundamental difference these lamps from oil lamps had a burner located above the tank; This turned out to be possible due to the fact that kerosene is easily absorbed by the wick and is easily flammable. The widespread use of kerosene lamps, and after them gas burners with glow grids, led to the need for devices to protect the eyes from the glare of the hot parts of these lamps. Various diffusers made of milky silicate glass, “lampshades,” opaque reflectors and screens were used as such devices.

With its spread in the 19th century. kerosene lamps, more complex in their design than all the lamps that preceded them, as well as with the development of the machine production method, the lamp gradually began to be recognized not only as a decorative element of the interior, but also as a household appliance.

The era of kerosene lighting created a number of very stable structures. Electric lamps still use some of these structures, although not always justified from a design point of view. In kerosene lamps, complex units appear for raising and lowering the lamp (candle chandeliers were lowered and raised using small winches). Kerosene lamps of the second half of the 19th century. were produced both in the form of simple and cheap machine-made products, and in the form of unique expensive products using art glass, porcelain and metal casting.

The new method of production entailed the emergence of new materials and technologies, but it could not quickly create its own specific, unique forms of products. The appearance of electric lighting in the early 80s of the XIX century. came at a time of stylistic chaos. The bourgeoisie's desire for aristocratic respectability in their homes revived interest in antiques and led to a revival of historical styles in architecture and furniture different eras. However, advanced artists and architects of that time had already begun an intensive search for new ways, which led to the emergence of the Art Nouveau style, which was frankly decorative in nature.

In electric lamps late XIX V. two directions were immediately determined: constructive (light, technological form, devoid of any decoration) and decorative (use of common stylistic forms of past eras and modernism).

Lamps of structurally simple and expressive forms were produced by many electrical engineering companies in the USA, Germany, and France. As a rule, these were lamps for local illumination of work areas, with the ability to regulate the direction of the light flux. The shape of some of them was so interesting that their serial production has now been resumed. Despite the fact that this step can be considered as a clear stylization in the spirit of “retro,” only a specialist can determine that the age of the prototype is already approaching a century.

The electric incandescent lamp made it possible to create, along with multifaceted designs, lamps with a closed structure, directly built into the ceiling or wall. New source Light opened up great opportunities for artists and architects working in the Art Nouveau style to create products with expressive decorative forms. Art Nouveau, according to which architects strived for ensemble unity of the architecture of the building, its interiors and equipment, developed a complex system of stylized ornament based on motifs of the plant world. This ornament was often used in lamps. A typical example is the lamps created by the Russian architect at the turn of the 20th century. for a number of mansions in Moscow. These lamps are inextricably linked with the space and equipment of the interior; they seem to “grow” out of the fantastic forms of the interior. Their forms are distinguished by a wealth of imagination and delicate taste.

And at the same time, modern artists are no longer trying to get away from the machine form, but they want to rethink this form decoratively.

By the 20s of the 20th century, when modernity had exhausted itself, trends towards simplifying product forms were quickly spreading throughout Europe. The lamps are also discreetly decorated. Pendant lamps with a fabric lampshade, flat-shaped bowl lamps, cube-shaped lantern pendants, wall lamps of simplified shapes, table lamps on a thin central stand with a fabric lampshade, devoid of any decoration - this is the main range of lamps used at that time.

In the early 50s, fluorescent lighting began to enter the home. The process is most intense in Japan, where this type of light source fits perfectly into the traditional national forms of lamps that have been formed over the centuries. Currently, fluorescent lighting dominates Japanese homes.

In Europe, the first attempts to introduce fluorescent lighting were made back in the 40s, but its use in household lamps was limited by the significant size of tubular fluorescent lamps, which made it possible to use them only in ceiling lamps.

A revolutionary breakthrough in this direction occurred in the late 70s and early 80s, when mass production of compact fluorescent lamps, comparable in size to standard incandescent lamps, was mastered.

And as always, innovation begins with the use of old forms. The first fluorescent lamps for residential premises follow the structure and shape of lamps with incandescent lamps. Only later do they acquire their own specific forms.