Interstellar dust is a product of processes of varying intensity occurring in all corners of the Universe, and its invisible particles even reach the surface of the Earth, flying in the atmosphere around us.
It has been proven many times that nature does not like emptiness. Interstellar space, which appears to us as a vacuum, is actually filled with gas and microscopic, 0.01-0.2 microns in size, dust particles. The combination of these invisible elements gives rise to objects of enormous size, a kind of clouds of the Universe, capable of absorbing certain types of spectral radiation from stars, sometimes completely hiding them from earthly researchers.
What is interstellar dust made of?
These microscopic particles have a core that is formed in the gas envelope of stars and is completely dependent on its composition. For example, graphite dust is formed from grains of carbon stars, and silicate dust is formed from oxygen particles. This is an interesting process that lasts for decades: as stars cool, they lose their molecules, which, flying into space, join into groups and become the basis of the core of a dust grain. Next, a shell of hydrogen atoms and more complex molecules is formed. In conditions low temperatures Interstellar dust is found in the form of ice crystals. Wandering around the Galaxy, little travelers lose some of the gas when heated, but new molecules take the place of the departed molecules.
Location and properties
The bulk of the dust that falls on our Galaxy is concentrated in the Milky Way region. It stands out against the background of stars in the form of black stripes and spots. Despite the fact that the weight of dust is negligible compared to the weight of gas and is only 1%, it is capable of hiding celestial bodies from us. Although the particles are separated from each other by tens of meters, even in this quantity the densest regions absorb up to 95% of the light emitted by the stars. The size of the gas and dust clouds in our system is truly enormous, measured in hundreds of light years.
Impact on observations
Thackeray's globules make the area of the sky behind them invisible
Interstellar dust absorbs most of the radiation from stars, especially in the blue spectrum, and it distorts their light and polarity. The greatest distortion is experienced by short waves from distant sources. Microparticles mixed with gas are visible as dark spots on Milky Way.
Due to this factor, the core of our Galaxy is completely hidden and accessible to observation only in infrared rays. Clouds with a high concentration of dust become almost opaque, so the particles inside do not lose their icy shell. Modern researchers and scientists believe that it is they, when sticking together, that form the nuclei of new comets.
Science has proven the influence of dust granules on the processes of star formation. These particles contain various substances, including metals, which act as catalysts for numerous chemical processes.
Our planet increases its mass every year due to falling interstellar dust. Of course, these microscopic particles are invisible, and to find and study them, they study the ocean floor and meteorites. The collection and delivery of interstellar dust has become one of the functions of spacecraft and missions.
When large particles enter the Earth's atmosphere, they lose their shell, and small particles circle around us invisibly for years. Cosmic dust ubiquitous and similar in all galaxies, astronomers regularly observe dark features on the faces of distant worlds.
Many people admire with delight the beautiful spectacle of the starry sky, one of greatest creations nature. In a clear autumn sky, it is clearly visible how a faintly luminous stripe runs across the entire sky, called Milky Way, having irregular outlines with different widths and brightness. If we examine the Milky Way, which forms our Galaxy, through a telescope, it will turn out that this bright strip breaks up into many faintly luminous stars, which for the naked eye merge into a continuous glow. It is now established that the Milky Way consists not only of stars and star clusters, but also of gas and dust clouds.
Cosmic dust occurs in many space objects, where a rapid outflow of matter occurs, accompanied by cooling. It manifests itself by infrared radiation hot Wolf-Rayet stars with a very powerful stellar wind, planetary nebulae, shells of supernovae and novae. A large amount of dust exists in the cores of many galaxies (for example, M82, NGC253), from which there is an intense outflow of gas. The influence of cosmic dust is most pronounced during radiation nova. A few weeks after the maximum brightness of the nova, a strong excess of radiation in the infrared appears in its spectrum, caused by the appearance of dust with a temperature of about K. Further
Cosmic dust particles of matter in interstellar and interplanetary space. Light-absorbing condensations of cosmos are visible as dark spots in photographs of the Milky Way. Attenuation of light due to the influence of K. p. - so-called. interstellar absorption, or extinction, is not the same for electromagnetic waves of different lengths λ
, as a result of which reddening of stars is observed. In the visible region, extinction is approximately proportional to λ -1, in the near ultraviolet region it is almost independent of wavelength, but around 1400 Å there is an additional absorption maximum. Most of the extinction is due to light scattering rather than absorption. This follows from observations of reflection nebulae containing cosmic particles, visible around stars of spectral class B and some other stars bright enough to illuminate the dust. A comparison of the brightness of nebulae and the stars that illuminate them shows that the albedo of dust is high. The observed extinction and albedo lead to the conclusion that the crystal structure consists of dielectric particles with an admixture of metals with a size slightly less than 1 µm. The ultraviolet extinction maximum can be explained by the fact that inside the dust grains there are graphite flakes measuring about 0.05 × 0.05 × 0.01 µm. Due to the diffraction of light by a particle whose dimensions are comparable to the wavelength, light is scattered predominantly forward. Interstellar absorption often leads to polarization of light, which is explained by the anisotropy of the properties of dust grains (the elongated shape of dielectric particles or the anisotropy of the conductivity of graphite) and their ordered orientation in space. The latter is explained by the action of a weak interstellar field, which orients dust grains with their long axis perpendicular to power line. Thus, by observing the polarized light of distant celestial bodies, one can judge the orientation of the field in interstellar space. The relative amount of dust is determined from the average absorption of light in the Galactic plane - from 0.5 to several stellar magnitudes per 1 kiloParsec in the visual region of the spectrum. The mass of dust makes up about 1% of the mass of interstellar matter. Dust, like gas, is distributed non-uniformly, forming clouds and denser formations - Globules. In globules, dust acts as a cooling factor, shielding the light of stars and emitting in the infrared the energy received by the dust grain from inelastic collisions with gas atoms. On the surface of the dust, atoms combine into molecules: the dust is a catalyst. S. B. Pikelner.
Big Soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
See what “Cosmic dust” is in other dictionaries:
Particles of condensed matter in interstellar and interplanetary space. According to modern concepts, cosmic dust consists of particles measuring approx. 1 µm with a graphite or silicate core. In the Galaxy, cosmic dust forms... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
SPACE DUST, very fine particles solid, located in any part of the Universe, including meteorite dust and interstellar matter, capable of absorbing starlight and forming dark NEBULAs in galaxies. Spherical... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary
COSMIC DUST- meteoric dust, as well as the smallest particles of matter that form dust and other nebulae in interstellar space... Big Polytechnic Encyclopedia
cosmic dust- Very small particles of solid matter present in outer space and falling to the Earth... Dictionary of Geography
Particles of condensed matter in interstellar and interplanetary space. According to modern concepts, cosmic dust consists of particles about 1 micron in size with a core of graphite or silicate. In the Galaxy, cosmic dust forms... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary
It is formed in space by particles ranging in size from several molecules to 0.1 mm. 40 kilotons of cosmic dust settle on planet Earth every year. Cosmic dust can also be distinguished by its astronomical position, for example: intergalactic dust, ... ... Wikipedia
cosmic dust- kosminės dulkės statusas T sritis fizika atitikmenys: engl. cosmic dust; interstellar dust; space dust vok. interstellarer Staub, m; kosmische Staubteilchen, m rus. cosmic dust, f; interstellar dust, f pranc. poussière cosmique, f; poussière… … Fizikos terminų žodynas
cosmic dust- kosminės dulkės statusas T sritis ekologija ir aplinkotyra apibrėžtis Atmosferoje susidarančios meteorinės dulkės. atitikmenys: engl. cosmic dust vok. kosmischer Staub, m rus. cosmic dust, f... Ekologijos terminų aiškinamasis žodynas
Particles condensed into va in interstellar and interplanetary space. According to modern According to the ideas, K. p. consists of particles measuring approx. 1 µm with a graphite or silicate core. In the Galaxy, the cosmos forms condensations of clouds and globules. Calls... ... Natural science. Encyclopedic Dictionary
Particles of condensed matter in interstellar and interplanetary space. Consists of particles about 1 micron in size with a core of graphite or silicate, in the Galaxy it forms clouds that cause a weakening of the light emitted by stars and... ... Astronomical Dictionary
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- Children about space and astronauts, G. N. Elkin. This book introduces amazing world space. On its pages, the child will find answers to many questions: what are stars, black holes, where do comets and asteroids come from, what is...
COSMIC DUST, solid particles with characteristic sizes from about 0.001 μm to about 1 μm (and possibly up to 100 μm or more in the interplanetary medium and protoplanetary disks), found in almost all astronomical objects: from solar system to very distant galaxies and quasars. Dust characteristics (particle concentration, chemical composition, particle size, etc.) vary significantly from one object to another, even for objects of the same type. Cosmic dust scatters and absorbs incident radiation. Scattered radiation with the same wavelength as the incident radiation propagates in all directions. Radiation absorbed by a speck of dust is transformed into thermal energy, and the particle usually emits in a longer wavelength region of the spectrum compared to the incident radiation. Both processes contribute to extinction - weakening of radiation celestial bodies dust located on the line of sight between the object and the observer.
Dust objects are studied in almost the entire range of electromagnetic waves - from X-rays to millimeter waves. Electrical dipole radiation from rapidly rotating ultrafine particles appears to make some contribution to microwave emission at frequencies of 10-60 GHz. An important role is played by laboratory experiments in which they measure refractive indices, as well as absorption spectra and scattering matrices of particles - analogues of cosmic dust grains, simulate the processes of formation and growth of refractory dust grains in the atmospheres of stars and protoplanetary disks, study the formation of molecules and the evolution of volatile dust components in conditions similar to those existing in dark interstellar clouds.
Cosmic dust located in various physical conditions, are directly studied in the composition of meteorites that fell on the Earth’s surface, in upper layers the earth's atmosphere (interplanetary dust and remnants of small comets), during spacecraft flights to planets, asteroids and comets (circumplanetary and cometary dust) and beyond the heliosphere (interstellar dust). Ground-based and space-based remote observations of cosmic dust cover the Solar System (interplanetary, circumplanetary and cometary dust, dust near the Sun), the interstellar medium of our Galaxy (interstellar, circumstellar and nebular dust) and other galaxies (extragalactic dust), as well as very distant objects (cosmological dust).
Cosmic dust particles mainly consist of carbonaceous substances (amorphous carbon, graphite) and magnesium-iron silicates (olivines, pyroxenes). They condense and grow in the atmospheres of stars of late spectral types and in protoplanetary nebulae, and are then ejected into the interstellar medium by radiation pressure. In interstellar clouds, especially dense ones, refractory particles continue to grow as a result of the accretion of gas atoms, as well as when particles collide and stick together (coagulation). This leads to the appearance of shells of volatile substances (mainly ice) and to the formation of porous aggregate particles. The destruction of dust grains occurs as a result of sputtering in shock waves arising after supernova explosions, or evaporation during the process of star formation that began in the cloud. The remaining dust continues to evolve near the formed star and later manifests itself in the form of an interplanetary dust cloud or cometary nuclei. Paradoxically, around evolved (old) stars the dust is “fresh” (recently formed in their atmosphere), and around young stars the dust is old (evolved as part of the interstellar medium). It is believed that cosmological dust, possibly existing in distant galaxies, was condensed in the ejections of material from the explosions of massive supernovae.
Lit. look at Art. Interstellar dust.
Space exploration (meteor)dust on the surface of the Earth:problem overview
A.P.Boyarkina, L.M. Gindilis
Cosmic dust as an astronomical factor
Cosmic dust refers to particles of solid matter ranging in size from fractions of a micron to several microns. Dust matter is one of the important components of outer space. It fills interstellar, interplanetary and near-Earth space, penetrates the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere and falls on the Earth's surface in the form of so-called meteor dust, being one of the forms of material (material and energy) exchange in the Space-Earth system. At the same time, it influences a whole series processes occurring on Earth.
Dust matter in interstellar space
The interstellar medium consists of gas and dust mixed in a ratio of 100:1 (by mass), i.e. the mass of dust is 1% of the mass of the gas. The average gas density is 1 hydrogen atom per cubic centimeter or 10 -24 g/cm 3 . The density of dust is correspondingly 100 times less. Despite such an insignificant density, dust matter has a significant impact on the processes occurring in Space. First of all, interstellar dust absorbs light, which is why distant objects located near the galactic plane (where the dust concentration is greatest) are not visible in the optical region. For example, the center of our Galaxy is observed only in the infrared, radio and X-rays. And other galaxies can be observed in the optical range if they are located far from the galactic plane, at high galactic latitudes. The absorption of light by dust leads to distortion of distances to stars determined photometrically. Taking absorption into account is one of the most important problems in observational astronomy. When interacting with dust, the spectral composition and polarization of light changes.
Gas and dust in the galactic disk are distributed unevenly, forming separate gas and dust clouds; the concentration of dust in them is approximately 100 times higher than in the intercloud medium. Dense gas and dust clouds do not transmit the light of the stars behind them. Therefore, they appear as dark areas in the sky, which are called dark nebulae. An example is the Coalsack region in the Milky Way or the Horsehead Nebula in the constellation Orion. If there are bright stars near a gas and dust cloud, then due to the scattering of light on dust particles, such clouds glow; they are called reflection nebulae. An example is the reflection nebula in the Pleiades cluster. The most dense are clouds of molecular hydrogen H 2, their density is 10 4 -10 5 times higher than in clouds of atomic hydrogen. Accordingly, the density of dust is just as many times higher. In addition to hydrogen, molecular clouds contain dozens of other molecules. Dust particles are nuclei of condensation of molecules; on their surface, chemical reactions with the formation of new, more complex molecules. Molecular clouds are regions of intense star formation.
In composition, interstellar particles consist of a refractory core (silicates, graphite, silicon carbide, iron) and a shell of volatile elements (H, H 2, O, OH, H 2 O). There are also very small silicate and graphite particles (without a shell) of the order of hundredths of a micron in size. According to the hypothesis of F. Hoyle and C. Wickramasing, a significant proportion of interstellar dust, up to 80%, consists of bacteria.
The interstellar medium is continuously replenished due to the influx of matter during the shedding of stellar shells in the later stages of their evolution (especially during supernova explosions). On the other hand, it itself is the source of the formation of stars and planetary systems.
Dust matter in interplanetary and near-Earth space
Interplanetary dust is formed mainly during the decay of periodic comets, as well as during the crushing of asteroids. Dust formation occurs continuously, and the process of dust grains falling onto the Sun under the influence of radiation braking also continues continuously. As a result, a constantly renewed dust environment is formed, filling interplanetary space and being in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Its density, although higher than in interstellar space, is still very small: 10 -23 -10 -21 g/cm 3 . However, it noticeably scatters sunlight. When it is scattered on particles of interplanetary dust, optical phenomena such as zodiacal light, the Fraunhofer component of the solar corona, the zodiacal band, and counter-radiance arise. The zodiacal component of the glow of the night sky is also determined by the scattering of dust particles.
Dust matter in the Solar System is highly concentrated towards the ecliptic. In the ecliptic plane, its density decreases approximately in proportion to the distance from the Sun. Near the Earth, as well as near other large planets, the concentration of dust increases under the influence of their gravity. Interplanetary dust particles move around the Sun in shrinking (due to radiation braking) elliptical orbits. Their speed of movement is several tens of kilometers per second. When colliding with solids, including with spacecraft, they cause noticeable surface erosion.
Colliding with the Earth and burning up in its atmosphere at an altitude of about 100 km, cosmic particles cause the well-known phenomenon of meteors (or “shooting stars”). On this basis, they are called meteoric particles, and the entire complex of interplanetary dust is often called meteoric matter or meteor dust. Most meteor particles are loose bodies of cometary origin. Among them, two groups of particles are distinguished: porous particles with a density of 0.1 to 1 g/cm 3 and so-called dust lumps or fluffy flakes, reminiscent of snowflakes with a density of less than 0.1 g/cm 3 . In addition, denser asteroid-type particles with a density of more than 1 g/cm 3 are less common. At high altitudes, loose meteors predominate; at altitudes below 70 km, asteroid particles with an average density of 3.5 g/cm 3 prevail.
As a result of the fragmentation of loose meteoroids of cometary origin at altitudes of 100-400 km from the Earth's surface, a fairly dense dust shell is formed, the dust concentration in which is tens of thousands of times higher than in interplanetary space. The scattering of sunlight in this shell causes the twilight glow of the sky when the sun dips below the horizon below 100º.
The largest and smallest meteoroids of the asteroid type reach the Earth's surface. The first (meteorites) reach the surface due to the fact that they do not have time to completely collapse and burn when flying through the atmosphere; the latter - due to the fact that their interaction with the atmosphere, due to their insignificant mass (at a sufficiently high density), occurs without noticeable destruction.
The fall of cosmic dust onto the Earth's surface
If meteorites have long been in the field of view of science, then cosmic dust for a long time did not attract the attention of scientists.
The concept of cosmic (meteor) dust was introduced into science in the second half of the 19th century, when the famous Dutch polar explorer A.E. Nordenskjöld discovered dust supposedly cosmic origin. Around the same time, in the mid-1970s, Murray (I. Murray) described rounded magnetite particles found in deep-sea sediments Pacific Ocean, the origin of which was also associated with cosmic dust. However, these assumptions were not confirmed for a long time, remaining within the framework of the hypothesis. At the same time, the scientific study of cosmic dust progressed extremely slowly, as pointed out by Academician V.I. Vernadsky in 1941.
He first drew attention to the problem of cosmic dust in 1908 and then returned to it in 1932 and 1941. In the work “On the Study of Cosmic Dust” V.I. Vernadsky wrote: “... The earth is connected with cosmic bodies and with outer space not only by exchange different forms energy. It is closely connected with them materially... Among the material bodies falling onto our planet from outer space, predominantly meteorites and cosmic dust, which is usually included in them, are accessible to our direct study... Meteorites - and at least to some extent the fireballs associated with them - are always unexpected for us in their manifestation... Cosmic dust is a different matter: everything indicates that it falls continuously, and perhaps this continuity of fall exists at every point of the biosphere, distributed evenly over the entire planet. It is surprising that this phenomenon, one might say, has not been studied at all and completely disappears from scientific records.» .
Considering the largest known meteorites in this article, V.I. Vernadsky special attention pays attention to the Tunguska meteorite, the search for which was carried out by L.A. under his direct supervision. Sandpiper. Large fragments of the meteorite were not found, and in connection with this V.I. Vernadsky makes the assumption that he “... is a new phenomenon in the annals of science - the penetration into the region of earth's gravity not of a meteorite, but of a huge cloud or clouds of cosmic dust moving at cosmic speed» .
To the same topic V.I. Vernadsky returned in February 1941 in his report “On the need to organize scientific work on cosmic dust” at a meeting of the Committee on Meteorites of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In this document, along with theoretical reflections on the origin and role of cosmic dust in geology and especially in the geochemistry of the Earth, he substantiates in detail the program for searching and collecting material from cosmic dust that has fallen on the surface of the Earth, with the help of which, he believes, a number of problems can be solved scientific cosmogony about the qualitative composition and “dominant importance of cosmic dust in the structure of the Universe.” It is necessary to study cosmic dust and take it into account as a source of cosmic energy, continuously brought to us from the surrounding space. The mass of cosmic dust, noted V.I. Vernadsky, has atomic and other nuclear energy, which is not indifferent in its existence in Space and in its manifestation on our planet. To understand the role of cosmic dust, he emphasized, it is necessary to have sufficient material for its study. Organizing the collection of cosmic dust and scientific research of the collected material is the first task facing scientists. Promising for this purpose are V.I. Vernadsky considers snow and glacial natural plates of high-mountain and arctic regions remote from human industrial activity.
Great Patriotic War and death of V.I. Vernadsky, prevented the implementation of this program. However, it became relevant in the second half of the twentieth century and contributed to the intensification of research into meteoric dust in our country.
In 1946, on the initiative of Academician V.G. Fesenkov organized an expedition to the mountains of the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau (Northern Tien Shan), the task of which was to study solid particles with magnetic properties in snow deposits. The snow sampling site was chosen on the left side moraine of the Tuyuk-Su glacier (altitude 3500 m); most of the ridges surrounding the moraine were covered with snow, which reduced the possibility of contamination by earthly dust. It was also removed from sources of dust associated with human activity, and was surrounded on all sides by mountains.
The method for collecting cosmic dust in the snow cover was as follows. From a strip 0.5 m wide to a depth of 0.75 m, snow was collected with a wooden shovel, transferred and melted into aluminum cookware, poured into a glass container, where a solid fraction precipitated within 5 hours. Then the upper part of the water was drained, a new batch of melted snow was added, etc. As a result, 85 buckets of snow were melted with a total area of 1.5 m2 and a volume of 1.1 m3. The resulting sediment was transferred to the laboratory of the Institute of Astronomy and Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR, where the water was evaporated and subjected to further analysis. However, since these studies did not give a definite result, N.B. Divari came to the conclusion that it would be better to use either very old compacted firns or open glaciers to take snow samples in this case.
Significant progress in the study of cosmic meteor dust came in the middle of the twentieth century, when, in connection with the launches of artificial Earth satellites, direct methods for studying meteor particles were developed - their direct registration by the number of collisions with a spacecraft or various types traps (installed on satellites and geophysical rockets launched to an altitude of several hundred kilometers). Analysis of the obtained materials made it possible, in particular, to detect the presence of a dust shell around the Earth at altitudes from 100 to 300 km above the surface (as discussed above).
Along with the study of dust using spacecraft, particles were studied in the lower atmosphere and various natural reservoirs: in high-mountain snow, in the Antarctic ice sheet, in the polar ice of the Arctic, in peat deposits and deep-sea silt. The latter are observed primarily in the form of so-called “magnetic balls,” that is, dense spherical particles with magnetic properties. The size of these particles is from 1 to 300 microns, weight from 10 -11 to 10 -6 g.
Another direction is related to the study of astrophysical and geophysical phenomena associated with cosmic dust; this includes various optical phenomena: the glow of the night sky, noctilucent clouds, zodiacal light, counter-radiance, etc. Their study also allows us to obtain important data about cosmic dust. Meteor studies were included in the program of the International Geophysical Year 1957-1959 and 1964-1965.
As a result of these works, estimates of the total influx of cosmic dust onto the Earth's surface were refined. According to T.N. Nazarova, I.S. Astapovich and V.V. Fedynsky, the total influx of cosmic dust to Earth reaches up to 10 7 tons/year. According to A.N. Simonenko and B.Yu. Levin (according to data for 1972), the influx of cosmic dust to the surface of the Earth is 10 2 -10 9 t/year, according to other, more recent studies - 10 7 -10 8 t/year.
Research into meteor dust collection continued. At the suggestion of Academician A.P. Vinogradov, during the 14th Antarctic expedition (1968-1969), work was carried out to identify patterns of spatiotemporal distributions of extraterrestrial matter deposition in the Antarctic ice sheet. The surface layer of snow cover was studied in the areas of Molodezhnaya, Mirny, Vostok stations and in a section of about 1400 km between Mirny and Vostok stations. Snow sampling was carried out from pits 2-5 m deep at points remote from polar stations. The samples were packed in plastic bags or special plastic containers. Under stationary conditions, samples were melted in glass or aluminum containers. The resulting water was filtered using a collapsible funnel through membrane filters (pore size 0.7 μm). The filters were moistened with glycerol and the number of microparticles was determined in transmitted light at a magnification of 350X.
Polar ice, bottom sediments of the Pacific Ocean, sedimentary rocks, and salt deposits were also studied. At the same time, the search for melted microscopic spherical particles, which are quite easily identified among other dust fractions, has proven to be a promising direction.
In 1962, the Commission on Meteorites and Cosmic Dust was created at the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, headed by Academician V.S. Sobolev, which existed until 1990 and the creation of which was initiated by the problem Tunguska meteorite. Work on the study of cosmic dust was carried out under the leadership of Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences N.V. Vasilyeva.
When assessing cosmic dust fallout, along with other natural tablets, we used peat composed of brown sphagnum moss according to the method of Tomsk scientist Yu.A. Lvov. This moss is quite widespread in middle lane the globe, receives mineral nutrition only from the atmosphere and has the ability to preserve it in a layer that was superficial when dust hit it. Layer-by-layer stratification and dating of peat allows a retrospective assessment of its loss. Both spherical particles with a size of 7-100 microns and the microelement composition of the peat substrate were studied - a function of the dust it contained.
The method for isolating cosmic dust from peat is as follows. In a section of raised sphagnum bog, a site is selected with flat surface and a peat deposit composed of brown sphagnum moss (Sphagnum fuscum Klingr). Shrubs are cut from its surface at the level of the moss turf. A pit is laid to a depth of 60 cm, a platform is marked at its side the right size(for example, 10x10 cm), then a column of peat is exposed on two or three sides, cut into layers of 3 cm each, which are packed in plastic bags. The upper 6 layers (feather) are considered together and can serve to determine age characteristics according to the method of E.Ya. Muldiyarov and E.D. Lapshina. Each layer is washed under laboratory conditions through a sieve with a mesh diameter of 250 microns for at least 5 minutes. The humus with mineral particles that has passed through the sieve is allowed to settle until the sediment completely falls out, then the sediment is poured into a Petri dish, where it is dried. Packed in tracing paper, the dry sample is convenient for transportation and for further study. Under appropriate conditions, the sample is ashed in a crucible and muffle furnace for an hour at a temperature of 500-600 degrees. The ash residue is weighed and subjected to either inspection under a binocular microscope at 56 times magnification to identify spherical particles measuring 7-100 microns or more, or subjected to other types of analysis. Because This moss receives mineral nutrition only from the atmosphere, then its ash component may be a function of the cosmic dust included in its composition.
Thus, studies in the area of the fall of the Tunguska meteorite, many hundreds of kilometers away from sources of technogenic pollution, made it possible to estimate the influx of spherical particles with a size of 7-100 microns or more onto the Earth’s surface. The upper layers of peat provided an opportunity to estimate global aerosol deposition during the study period; layers dating back to 1908 - substances of the Tunguska meteorite; lower (pre-industrial) layers - cosmic dust. The influx of cosmic microspherules onto the Earth's surface is estimated at (2-4)·10 3 t/year, and in general of cosmic dust - 1.5·10 9 t/year. Analytical methods of analysis, in particular neutron activation, were used to determine the trace element composition of cosmic dust. According to these data, the following falls annually onto the Earth's surface from outer space (t/year): iron (2·10 6), cobalt (150), scandium (250).
Of great interest in terms of the above studies are the works of E.M. Kolesnikova and her co-authors, who discovered isotopic anomalies in the peat of the area where the Tunguska meteorite fell, dating back to 1908 and speaking, on the one hand, in favor of the comet hypothesis of this phenomenon, on the other hand, shedding light on the cometary substance that fell on the surface of the Earth.
Most full review problems of the Tunguska meteorite, including its substance, for 2000 the monograph by V.A. Bronshten. The latest data on the substance of the Tunguska meteorite were reported and discussed at International conference“100 years of the Tunguska phenomenon”, Moscow, June 26-28, 2008. Despite the progress made in the study of cosmic dust, a number of problems still remain unresolved.
Sources of metascientific knowledge about cosmic dust
Along with the data received modern methods research, the information contained in extra-scientific sources is of great interest: “Letters of the Mahatmas”, the Teaching of Living Ethics, letters and works of E.I. Roerich (in particular, in her work “Study of Human Properties,” which provides an extensive program of scientific research for many years to come).
So in a letter from Koot Hoomi in 1882 to the editor of the influential English-language newspaper “Pioneer” A.P. Sinnett (the original letter is kept in the British Museum) provides the following data on cosmic dust:
- “High above our earth’s surface, the air is saturated and space is filled with magnetic and meteoric dust that does not even belong to our solar system”;
“The snow, especially in our northern regions, is full of meteoric iron and magnetic particles, deposits of the latter are found even at the bottom of the oceans.” “Millions of such meteors and the finest particles reach us every year and every day”;
- “every atmospheric change on Earth and all perturbations occur from the combined magnetism” of two large “mass” - the Earth and meteoric dust;
There is "the terrestrial magnetic attraction of meteoric dust and the direct effect of the latter on sudden changes in temperature, especially in relation to heat and cold";
Because “our earth with all the other planets is rushing through space, it receives more of the cosmic dust on its northern hemisphere than on the southern”; “...this explains the quantitative predominance of continents in the northern hemisphere and the greater abundance of snow and dampness”;
- “The heat that the earth receives from the rays of the sun is, to the greatest extent, only a third, if not less, of the amount it receives directly from meteors”;
- “Powerful accumulations of meteoric matter” in interstellar space lead to a distortion of the observed intensity of starlight and, consequently, to a distortion of the distances to stars obtained by photometry.
A number of these provisions were ahead of the science of that time and were confirmed by subsequent research. Thus, studies of twilight atmospheric glow carried out in the 30-50s. XX century, showed that if at altitudes less than 100 km the glow is determined by the scattering of sunlight in a gaseous (air) medium, then at altitudes of more than 100 km the predominant role is played by scattering on dust particles. The first observations made with the help of artificial satellites led to the discovery of the dust shell of the Earth at altitudes of several hundred kilometers, as indicated in the mentioned letter from Kut Hoomi. Of particular interest are data on distortions of distances to stars obtained photometrically. Essentially, this was an indication of the presence of interstellar absorption, discovered in 1930 by Trempler, which is rightfully considered one of the most important astronomical discoveries of the 20th century. Taking into account interstellar absorption led to a reestimation of the astronomical distance scale and, as a consequence, to a change in the scale of the visible Universe.
Some provisions of this letter - about the influence of cosmic dust on processes in the atmosphere, in particular on the weather - have not yet found scientific confirmation. Further study is needed here.
Let us turn to another source of metascientific knowledge - the Teaching of Living Ethics, created by E.I. Roerich and N.K. Roerich in collaboration with the Himalayan Teachers - Mahatmas in the 20-30s of the twentieth century. The books of Living Ethics, originally published in Russian, have now been translated and published in many languages of the world. They pay great attention scientific problems. In this case, we will be interested in everything related to cosmic dust.
The problem of cosmic dust, in particular its influx to the surface of the Earth, is given quite a lot of attention in the Teaching of Living Ethics.
“Pay attention to high places exposed to winds from snowy peaks. At the level of twenty-four thousand feet special deposits of meteoric dust can be observed" (1927-1929). “Aerolites are not studied enough, and even less attention is paid to cosmic dust on eternal snow and glaciers. Meanwhile, the Cosmic Ocean draws its rhythm on the peaks" (1930-1931). “Meteor dust is inaccessible to the eye, but produces very significant precipitation” (1932-1933). “In the purest place, the purest snow is saturated with earthly and cosmic dust - this is how space is filled even with rough observation” (1936).
Much attention is paid to issues of cosmic dust in the “Cosmological Records” of E.I. Roerich (1940). It should be borne in mind that E.I. Roerich closely followed the development of astronomy and was aware of its latest achievements; she critically assessed some theories of that time (20-30 years of the last century), for example in the field of cosmology, and her ideas have been confirmed in our time. The Teaching of Living Ethics and Cosmological Records of E.I. Roerich contain a number of provisions about those processes that are associated with the fall of cosmic dust on the surface of the Earth and which can be summarized as follows:
In addition to meteorites, material particles of cosmic dust constantly fall onto the Earth, which bring in cosmic matter that carries information about the Distant Worlds of outer space;
Cosmic dust changes the composition of soils, snow, natural waters and plants;
This especially applies to the locations of natural ores, which not only act as a kind of magnets that attract cosmic dust, but we should also expect some differentiation depending on the type of ore: “So iron and other metals attract meteors, especially when the ores are in a natural state and are not devoid of cosmic magnetism”;
Much attention in the Teaching of Living Ethics is paid to mountain peaks, which, according to E.I. Roerich “...are the greatest magnetic stations.” “...The Cosmic Ocean draws its rhythm on the peaks”;
Studying cosmic dust may lead to the discovery of new, not yet discovered modern science minerals, in particular metal, which has properties that help maintain vibrations with the distant worlds of outer space;
By studying cosmic dust, new types of microbes and bacteria may be discovered;
But what is especially important is that the Teaching of Living Ethics opens a new page of scientific knowledge - the impact of cosmic dust on living organisms, including humans and their energy. It can have various effects on the human body and some processes on the physical and, especially, subtle planes.
This information is beginning to be confirmed in modern scientific research. Thus, in recent years, complex organic compounds have been discovered on cosmic dust particles, and some scientists have started talking about cosmic microbes. In this regard, the work on bacterial paleontology carried out at the Institute of Paleontology of the Russian Academy of Sciences is of particular interest. In these works, in addition to terrestrial rocks, meteorites were studied. It has been shown that microfossils found in meteorites represent traces of the vital activity of microorganisms, some of which are similar to cyanobacteria. In a number of studies, it was possible to experimentally demonstrate the positive effect of cosmic matter on plant growth and substantiate the possibility of its influence on the human body.
The authors of the Teachings of Living Ethics strongly recommend organizing constant monitoring of cosmic dust fallout. And use glacial and snow deposits in the mountains at an altitude of over 7 thousand meters as its natural reservoir. The Roerichs, living for many years in the Himalayas, dreamed of creating a scientific station there. In a letter dated October 13, 1930, E.I. Roerich writes: “The station must develop into a City of Knowledge. We wish in this City to give a synthesis of achievements, therefore all areas of science should subsequently be represented in it... The study of new cosmic rays, giving humanity new valuable energies, only possible at altitudes, for all the subtlest and most valuable and powerful lies in the purer layers of the atmosphere. Also, don’t all the meteoric precipitation that falls on the snowy peaks and carried into the valleys by mountain streams? .
Conclusion
The study of cosmic dust has now become an independent field of modern astrophysics and geophysics. This problem is especially relevant since meteoric dust is a source of cosmic matter and energy that is continuously brought to Earth from outer space and actively influences geochemical and geophysical processes, as well as having a unique effect on biological objects, including humans. These processes have not yet been studied much. In the study of cosmic dust, a number of provisions contained in the sources of metascientific knowledge have not been properly applied. Meteor dust manifests itself in terrestrial conditions not only as a phenomenon of the physical world, but also as matter that carries the energy of outer space, including worlds of other dimensions and other states of matter. Taking these provisions into account requires the development of a completely new method for studying meteoric dust. But the most important task remains the collection and analysis of cosmic dust in various natural reservoirs.
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