Emperors
ROMANOVS – tsarist (1613–1721) and imperial (1721–1917) dynasties of Russia.
Andrei Ivanovich Kobyla (? - until 1351) - the boyar of the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan I Kalita - is usually placed at the origins of the Romanov dynasty. Chronicles and genealogical lists say that Andrei Ivanovich Kobyla had five sons, from them the Lodynins, Konovnitsyns, Kobylins, Kolychevs, Neplyuevs, Sheremetevs and others descended.
The Romanov family came from youngest son Andrei Kobyla, boyar Fyodor Andreevich Koshka (? - 1393). He had a son, Ivan (boyar of Vasily I) and a grandson, Zakhary. The middle son of Zakhary, Yuri Zakharyevich (died in 1505) was a boyar and governor under Ivan III. The surname Romanov came from one of his sons, Roman Yuryevich Zakharyin (died in 1543). He had several children. Among them is Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina-Yuryeva (1530–1560), who in 1547 became the queen and first wife of Ivan IV Vasilyevich.
The son of Roman Zakharyin-Yuryev and the brother of Queen Anastasia, boyar Nikita Romanovich Zakharyin-Yuryev (? - 1586) became the founder of the Romanov dynasty. This surname was borne by his son, Fyodor Nikitich Romanov (c. 1554–1633), who later became Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Filaret.
In 1613 on Zemsky Sobor The son of Patriarch Filaret, Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1596–1645), the first Russian Tsar from the Romanov dynasty, was elected tsar.
At 17 – beginning. 18th century all Russian tsars bore the Romanov surname: Alexei Mikhailovich (1629–1676, tsar from 1645), Fyodor Alekseevich (1661–1682, tsar from 1676), Ivan V Alekseevich (1666–1696, tsar from 1682), Peter I Alekseevich (1672–1725, Tsar from 1682, Emperor from 1721). In 1682–1689, during the childhood of Ivan and Peter, the state was ruled by Princess Sofya Alekseevna (1657–1704). In 1721, Peter I declared Russia an empire. From that time on, Russian sovereigns bore the title of emperors.
After the death of Peter I in 1725, his wife Catherine I Alekseevna (d. 1727) became the Russian Empress. Then the grandson of Peter I and the son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, Peter II Alekseevich (1715–1730, emperor from 1727), ascended the Russian throne. After the death of Peter II in 1730, the Romanov dynasty ended in direct male generation. Among the Romanovs there were no more direct male heirs. In 1730–1740 the empress was Anna Ivanovna (1693–1740), daughter of Ivan V, niece of Peter I. In 1740–1741. under the young Ivan VI (1740–1764), his mother Anna Leopoldovna (1718–1746), who was the granddaughter of Ivan V, ruled.
In 1741–1761 The Russian state was ruled by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna (1709–1761), the natural daughter of Peter I. With the death of Elizaveta Petrovna in 1761, the dynasty came to an end in the direct female line - there were no more women left bearing the surname Romanova.
Even during the life of Elizabeth Petrovna, Peter (1728–1762), the grandson of Peter I on the female side, the son of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl Friedrich and Anna, the daughter of Peter, was declared heir to the throne. In 1761 he ascended the throne under the name of Peter III. But in 1762, he was overthrown from the throne by his wife Catherine, née Sophia Frederica Augusta, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst. From 1762–1796 she was Russian Empress Catherine II. In 1796, Paul I (1754–1801), the son of Peter III and Catherine II, ascended the throne. Since then, one of the names of the dynasty in historical literature is the Romanov-Holstein-Gottorp. Emperors from the House of Romanov continued to reign in the 19th century. 20th century: Alexander I Pavlovich (1777–1825, emperor from 1801), Nicholas I Pavlovich (1796–1855, emperor from 1825), Alexander II Nikolaevich (1818–1881, emperor from 1855), Alexander III Alexandrovich (1845–1894, emperor from 1881), Nicholas II Alexandrovich (1868–1918, emperor from 1894–1917).
In mid. 19th century The Romanov dynasty was divided into four branches, which came from the four sons of Nicholas I: Alexandrovich, Konstantinovich, Nikolaevich and Mikhailovich.
On March 2, 1917, Nicholas II abdicated the throne in favor of his brother, Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich. On March 3, 1917, Mikhail Alexandrovich refused to ascend the throne until the decision of the Constituent Assembly. This day is considered the last day of the Romanov dynasty in Russia.
In 1918, Nikolai Alexandrovich and his family were shot in Yekaterinburg. Other Romanovs, grand dukes and members of their families, were killed in 1918–1919. Some Romanovs managed to emigrate.
PETER I THE GREAT (30.05. 1672-28.01.1725) - Tsar from 1682, first Russian Emperor from 1721.
The youngest son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from his second marriage to N.K. Naryshkina. From the age of four I grew up without a father. As a ten-year-old child, he witnessed the Streltsy riot, which broke out after the death of his half-brother, the childless Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich (1682) and which became a reflection of the struggle of two groups - supporters of the Miloslavskys, relatives of the first wife of Alexei Mikhailovich, and supporters of the Naryshkins. Initially, supporters of the Naryshkins elevated Peter to the throne, bypassing his older half-brother Ivan. However, after the speech of the archers, incited by the Miloslavskys, a compromise decision was made: both brothers were crowned kings. Ivan V was declared the “senior”, and Peter I was declared the “junior” tsar; their elder sister, Princess Sofya Alekseevna, daughter of Alexei Mikhailovich from his first marriage, became the regent and de facto ruler of the state.
In his adolescence, Peter and his mother preferred to live not in the Kremlin, but in the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow. Here he indulged in the usual boyish fun - playing war, which soon grew into a serious passion for military affairs. By his will, “amusing” regiments were created - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, which later became the first guards regiments in Russia, the “amusing” fortress of Preshburg was built, “amusing” ships were built.
Peter made friends with many foreigners who lived in the German settlement, not far from Preobrazhenskoye. Communicating with the Germans, British, French, Swedes, and Danes, Peter became more and more convinced that Russia was significantly behind Western Europe. He saw that in his homeland science and education were not so developed, there was no strong army, there was no navy. The Russian state, huge in its territory, had almost no influence on the life of Europe.
In January 1689, Peter’s wedding took place with Evdokia Lopukhina; in 1690, a son, Alexei Petrovich, was born into this marriage. In the summer of 1689, the archers began to prepare a new uprising against Peter I. The young tsar fled in fear to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, but it turned out that most of the troops went over to his side. The instigators of the uprising were executed, and Princess Sophia was removed from power. Peter and Ivan became independent rulers. The sickly Ivan took almost no part in state activities, and in 1696, after his death, Peter I became the sovereign tsar.
Peter received his first baptism of fire in the war with Turkey in 1695–1696. during the Azov campaigns. Then Azov, Turkey’s stronghold on the Black Sea, was taken. In a more convenient and deeper bay, Peter founded the new harbor of Taganrog.
In 1697–1698 With the Great Embassy, under the name of Peter Mikhailov, the Tsar visited Europe for the first time. He studied shipbuilding in Holland, met with the sovereigns of various European powers, and hired many specialists to serve in Russia.
In the summer of 1698, when Peter was in England, a new Streltsy uprising broke out. Peter urgently returned from abroad and brutally dealt with the archers. He and his associates personally cut off the heads of the archers.
Over time, Peter turned from a hot-tempered youth into a grown man. His height exceeded two meters. Constant physical labor further developed his natural strength, and he became a real strongman. Peter was an educated man. He had deep knowledge of history, geography, shipbuilding, fortification, and artillery. He loved to make things with his own hands. No wonder he was called the “carpenter king.” Already in his youth he knew up to fourteen crafts, and over the years he acquired a lot of technical knowledge.
Peter loved fun, jokes, feasts and feasts, which sometimes lasted for several days. In moments of thought, he preferred a quiet office and a pipe to tobacco. Even in adulthood, Peter remained very active, impetuous and restless. His companions could barely keep up with him, skipping. But the turbulent events of his life, the shocks of his childhood and youth, affected Peter’s health. At the age of twenty, his head began to shake, and during excitement, convulsions passed through his face. He often had nervous attacks and bouts of unjustified anger. In a good mood, Peter gave his favorites the richest gifts. But his mood could change dramatically in a few seconds. And then he became uncontrollable, he could not only scream, but also use his fists or a baton. Since the 1690s Peter began to carry out reforms in all areas of Russian life. He used the experience of Western European countries in the development of industry, trade, and culture. Peter emphasized that his main concern was “the benefit of the Fatherland.” His words spoken to the soldiers on the eve of the Poltava battle became famous: “The hour has come that will decide the fate of the Fatherland. And so you should not think that you are fighting for Peter, but for the state entrusted to Peter, for your family, for the Fatherland, for Orthodox faith and the church... And about Peter, know that life is not dear to him, if only Russia lives in bliss and glory, for your well-being.” Peter sought to create a new, powerful Russian Empire, which would become one of the strongest, richest and most enlightened states in Europe.
In the 1st quarter 18th century Peter changed the system public administration: instead of the Boyar Duma, the Senate was created, in 1708–1715. provincial reform was carried out in 1718–1721. orders were replaced by collegiums. A regular army and navy were created, conscription and compulsory military service were introduced for nobles. By the end of Peter's reign, about a hundred plants and factories were operating, and Russia began to export industrial goods: iron, copper and linen. Peter cared about the development of culture and education: many educational institutions were opened, the civil alphabet was adopted, the Academy of Sciences was founded (1725), theaters appeared, new printing houses were equipped, in which more and more new books were printed. The first was published in 1703 Russian newspaper"Vedomosti". Foreign specialists were invited from Europe: engineers, craftsmen, doctors, officers. Peter sent Russian youths abroad to study sciences and crafts. In 1722, the Table of Ranks was adopted - a legislative act that brought all government ranks into the system. Service became the only way to obtain a government rank.
Since 1700, a new calendar was introduced in Russia from the Nativity of Christ and the celebration of the New Year on January 1, adopted in Western Europe. On May 16, 1703, on one of the islands at the mouth of the Neva River, Peter I founded the fortress of St. Petersburg. In 1712, St. Petersburg officially became the new capital of Russia. It was built stone houses and for the first time in Russia the streets began to be paved with stones.
Peter began to pursue a policy of limiting church power, church properties were transferred to the state. Since 1701, property issues were removed from the jurisdiction of the church. In 1721, the power of the patriarch was replaced by the power of the Synod, a collegial body that headed the church administration. The Synod reported directly to the sovereign.
After concluding peace with Turkey in 1700, in the field of foreign policy, Peter I considered the main task to be the fight with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. In the summer of 1700, Russia entered into the war, which became known as the Northern War. During the Northern War (1700–1721), Peter showed himself to be a talented commander and a remarkable strategist. He beat the Swedish army several times - the best in Europe at that time.
The king repeatedly demonstrated personal courage. On May 7, 1703, near the Nyenschanz fortress, Russian soldiers under his command in thirty boats captured two Swedish ships. For this feat, Peter was awarded the highest order in Russian state– Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. On June 27, 1709, during the Battle of Poltava, the tsar personally led one of the battalions of the Novgorod regiment and did not allow the Swedish troops to break through. The Northern War ended with the signing of the Peace of Nystadt between Sweden and Russia. Russia retained all the Baltic lands it had conquered (Estonia, Livonia, Courland, Ingermanland) and the opportunity to have a fleet in the Baltic Sea. Victory in the Northern War turned Russia into a powerful power with borders from the Baltic to the Sea of Okhotsk. Now all European states had to reckon with it.
In 1710–1713 Russia took part in the war with Turkey. In 1711, Peter I led the Prut campaign, which ended in failure. Russia ceded the city of Azov to Turkey, and also promised to demolish the fortresses of Taganrog, Bogoroditsk and Kamenny Zaton. As a result of the Persian campaign of 1722–1723. Russia acquired land on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. On October 22, 1721, the Senate presented Peter I with the title of Emperor of All Russia, the title “Great” and “Father of the Fatherland.” Since then, all Russian sovereigns began to be called emperors, and Russia turned into the Russian Empire.
Petrine reforms had not only positive consequences. In the 1st quarter 18th century A powerful bureaucratic system of state governance developed, subordinate only to the will of the king. For many years, the Russian state apparatus was dominated by foreigners, whom the tsar often trusted more than Russian subjects.
Peter's reforms and many years of war depleted the country's economy and placed a heavy burden on the working population of Russia. Peasants were forced to work more and more in corvee labor, and factory workers were permanently assigned to factories. Thousands of ordinary peasants and working people died from hunger, disease, under the whip of overseers at shipyards, during the construction of new fortresses and cities.
In 1718–1724 A tax reform was carried out, which increased the tax burden by 1.5–2 times. In addition, this reform led to even greater enslavement of the peasants. During the reign of Peter there were several major popular uprisings: in Astrakhan (1705–1706), on the Don, Slobodskaya Ukraine, the Volga region (1707–1708), in Bashkiria (1705–1711). The church policy of Peter I was also ambiguous. The complete subordination of the church to the state and the weakening of the role of the Orthodox clergy led to the destruction of traditional spiritual values.
Peter's actions caused a negative reaction in the upper strata of Russian society. Peter sharply broke the usual way of life of the Russian people, especially the nobles. They had difficulty getting used to assemblies and refused to shave their beards or go to theaters. The tsar's son and heir, Alexei Petrovich, did not accept Peter's reforms. Accused of plotting against the tsar, in 1718 he was deprived of the throne and sentenced to death.
The tsar's first wife, Evdokia Lopukhina, was sent to a monastery. In 1703, the tsar’s wife became a simple peasant woman, Marta Skavronskaya, who took the name of Catherine in Orthodox baptism. But the official wedding took place only in 1712. Several children were born in this marriage, but the sons died in infancy, leaving two daughters - Anna (the mother of the future Emperor Peter III) and Elizabeth, the future Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. In 1724, in the Assumption Cathedral, Peter I placed the imperial crown on the head of his wife.
In 1722, Peter I, who by that time had no male heirs, adopted a decree on succession to the throne: the heir was appointed at the will of the “ruling sovereign,” and the sovereign, having appointed an heir, could change his decision if he discovered that the heir did not justify hope. This decree laid the foundations for the palace coups of the 18th century. and became the reason for drawing up forged wills of sovereigns. In 1797, Paul I canceled the decree. In the last months of his life, Peter was very ill and spent most of his time in bed. Before his death, the emperor did not have time to draw up a will and transfer power to his successor. He was buried in Peter's Cathedral.
EKATERINA I ALEKSEEVNA (04/05/1683-05/06/1727) - Russian empress in 1725–1727, wife of Peter I. There is no reliable information about the childhood years of the future Russian empress and her parents. It is only known that among the prisoners captured by Russian troops in 1702 was the girl Marta Skavronskaya. First, she fell into the service of Field Marshal B.P. Sheremetev, then to Prince A.D. Menshikov. After some time, Tsar Peter I made her his favorite. In 1705, Martha converted to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. In 1712 she became the wife of the Russian emperor. On May 7, 1724, Peter I solemnly crowned Ekaterina Alekseevna empress and himself placed the imperial crown on her head.
On January 28, 1725, Peter I died before he could appoint an heir. A struggle began among his closest associates. Menshikov and other “chicks of Petrov’s nest” wanted to see Catherine on the throne, well-born nobles, the old nobility - the grandson of Peter I, Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich, who at that time was only 10 years old. Menshikov managed to attract the guards regiments to Catherine's side. Their position turned out to be decisive.
Having taken the throne, Catherine I announced the continuation of her husband's reforms. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was opened in St. Petersburg; V. Bering's expedition was sent to find out if there is an isthmus between Asia and North America; The system of digital schools and seminaries has been streamlined. Special attention was devoted to maintaining the combat effectiveness of the army and navy. Catherine herself could neither read nor write, and her daughter Elizabeth signed for her. To help the Empress in 1726, the Supreme Council was created privy council, in which both supporters of Peter I and old nobles participated on equal terms. The council was headed by Catherine herself, and Menshikov enjoyed the greatest influence. The empress herself spent most of her time at balls and organized numerous holidays. Russia was actually ruled by Menshikov.
Under Catherine I, a policy of increasing the privileges of the nobility began. At the same time, concessions were made to the common people: the per capita tax was reduced, and part of the taxes introduced under Peter I was eliminated.
In the beginning In 1727, Catherine I's health deteriorated, and in May she died, appointing Peter Alekseevich as her heir. She was buried in St. Petersburg, in the Peter and Paul Fortress.
In her marriage to Peter I, Ekaterina Alekseevna had several children, but only two daughters survived - Anna (mother of the future Russian Emperor Peter III) and Elizabeth (future Russian Empress in 1741–1761)
PETER// (October 13, 1715 – January 19, 1730) – Russian Emperor in 1727–1730. Pyotr Alekseevich was the son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and Princess Sophia Charlotte of Wolfenbüttel. The boy lost his parents early. He did not receive systematic upbringing and education. In 1727, Empress Catherine I, the wife of Peter I, died. Peter was only 12 years old when he became Emperor Peter II. Peter II spent almost all his time at feasts and hunting. But, from individual statements of the young emperor, one can understand that he felt a craving for ancient Russian customs and was going to pursue a policy different from the policy of his grandfather.
During the reign of Peter II, the state was ruled by the Supreme Privy Council, within which the struggle of court parties for power intensified. At first, the young emperor came under the influence of A.D. Menshikov, granted the title of Generalissimo to his Serene Highness and was going to marry his daughter Maria. But within a few months, the princes Dolgorukov and vice-chancellor A.I. Osterman managed to denigrate Menshikov in the eyes of Peter II. In September 1727, the young emperor sent the generalissimo into exile in the Siberian city of Berezov. Soon after this, the imperial court moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow. The wedding of the Emperor and Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukova was scheduled for January 1730. However, a few days before the wedding, Peter II fell ill with smallpox and died. With the death of Peter II, the Romanov dynasty was interrupted at the direct male knee. Peter II is buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
ANNA IVANOVNA(01/28/1693-10/17/1740) - Russian Empress from 1730, Duchess of Courland from 1710.
She was the daughter of Tsar Ivan V Alekseevich, the elder brother of Peter I, and Tsarina Praskovya Fedorovna (born Saltykova). In 1710, Anna married the nephew of the Prussian king, Duke of Courland Friedrich Wilhelm. The marriage was concluded for political reasons.
In January 1711, Anna's husband died. Anna was supposed, according to the will of Peter I, to settle in Mitava, the capital of the Duchy of Courland (now Jelgava in Latvia). She lived there for 19 years. Until 1730, Anna was completely dependent on her relatives who occupied the Russian throne. But Emperor Peter II, the grandson of Peter I, unexpectedly died. The Supreme Privy Council invited Anna Ivanovna to take the Russian throne. But the “higher-ups” obliged her to sign “conditions” - the conditions under which power was transferred to the hands of members of the Supreme Privy Council.
In February 1730, Anna Ivanovna, supported by the nobility, refused to carry out the will of the Supreme Privy Council, publicly broke the “conditions” and became the autocratic Russian empress. She liquidated the Supreme Council and dealt with her enemies. The Empress left state concerns to her entourage. A.I. Osterman was in charge of foreign policy, Feofan Prokopovich was in charge of church affairs. The empress's favorite E. I. Biron received the greatest freedom of action. He invited foreigners to all important positions in government. Those who were dissatisfied were brutally persecuted. It is not for nothing that the reign of Anna Ivanovna was called the “Bironovschina.”
Wars and attempts by the government to collect all taxes and arrears led to the ruin and abandonment of many farms and a reduction in the population of Russia. As a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1735–1739. Russia regained Azov, annexed Moldova, but lost lands along the western coast of the Caspian Sea, conquered by Peter I.
At this time, significant benefits were granted to the nobility: the law on single inheritance was repealed, the nobles were allowed to receive education at home, they received the right to retire after 25 years (this law was soon repealed, since so many wanted to take advantage of it). Anna Ivanovna herself spent enormous sums on balls, masquerades, receptions for ambassadors and various holidays. The most famous of her entertainments was the amusing wedding of jesters in a specially built Ice house. During her reign, an opera and a zoo appeared in Russia for the first time.
IVAN VI ANTONOVICH (08/12/1740-07/05/1764) - Russian Emperor from 10/17/1740 to 12/25/1741. Ivan Antonovich was the son of Prince Anton Ulrich of Brunswick and Anna Leopoldovna, niece of Empress Anna Ivanovna. He was proclaimed Emperor of Russia at the age of two months according to the will of Empress Anna Ivanovna. First E.I. Biron ruled for the baby, and then mother Anna Leopoldovna.
During the coup of December 25, 1741, carried out by Elizaveta Petrovna, Ivan was arrested and torn away from his parents. Almost his entire life was spent in solitary confinement in the Shlisselburg fortress. According to the instructions, the prisoner was not taught anything; in case of disobedience, he was allowed to be chained and beaten. According to rumors, during the accession of Catherine II, Vice-Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin drew up a plan for her marriage to Ivan. Catherine saw him in prison and considered him crazy.
Ivan was killed during an attempt to free himself, undertaken by second lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich. He was buried in Shlisselburg.
ELIZAVETA PETROVNA (12/18/1709-12/25/1761) - Russian empress from 11/25/1741, youngest daughter of Peter I and Catherine I.
Peter I loved his youngest daughter and called her Lisetka. He even named the sailing ship he sailed on in the Baltic Sea. Elizabeth did not receive a systematic education and in her youth had little interest in politics. After her mother, Catherine I, died in 1727, and her older sister Anna Petrovna got married and left for Holstein, Elizabeth became close to her nephew Peter Alekseevich (future Emperor Peter II). Between them they established friendly relations. There was even a plan to marry Peter and Elizabeth, but the princes Dolgorukov married Peter II to Catherine, the daughter of Prince A.E. Dolgorukov. Elizabeth was left to her own devices. She lived separately from the imperial court in the Pokrovskaya settlement near Moscow, in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky or in the Aleksandrovskaya settlement.
The Tsarevna behaved simply and naturally: she easily got along with people, willingly visited the company of guards soldiers and officers, attended their weddings and baptized children. Elizabeth was cheerful, beautiful, witty, and always dressed with taste. Her popularity among the people and among the guards worried Empress Anna Ivanovna. She ordered the princess to live at court. A “small court” of Elizabeth arose, which was composed of noblemen devoted to her: brothers Alexander and Peter Shuvalov, Mikhail Vorontsov and life surgeon Johann Lestok. Alexei Razumovsky, a simple Cossack, a former church choir singer, also entered Elizabeth’s “small courtyard.” He became the crown princess's favorite, and, having become empress, she granted him the title of count and the rank of field marshal general.
After the death of Anna Ivanovna, her niece Anna Leopoldovna, who was extremely unpopular in noble circles, became the ruler of Russia under the young Ivan VI Antonovich. Taking advantage of the weakening of the supreme power, the ambassadors of France and Sweden began to push Elizaveta Petrovna to carry out a coup d'etat. Both familiar guards officers and noblemen devoted to her spoke about this. After some time, the crown princess agreed to oppose the government of Anna Leopoldovna.
On November 25 at 2 a.m., Elizaveta, accompanied by brothers A. and P. Shuvalov, M. Vorontsov and I. Lestok, appeared in the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment. She reminded the soldiers that she was the daughter of Peter the Great, ordered them to follow her and at the same time forbade them to use weapons unnecessarily. The Evardeans enthusiastically swore allegiance to the new empress and, on her instructions, without shedding a drop of blood, they arrested and brought to the fortress Anna Leopoldovna, her husband Anton Ulrich, their son the infant sovereign Ivan Antonovich and vice-chancellor M. E. Golovkin, who advised Anna Leopoldovna to declare yourself as an empress. The next day, a short manifesto was published about the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna to the throne.
From the very beginning of her reign, she declared herself to continue the work of her father, Peter I. All Germans in the civil service were dismissed, and those close to Anna Ivanovna A. Osterman, B. Minich, Levenwolde were exiled by order of Elizabeth.
The new empress appointed capable Russian people to important government positions.
Elizabeth's reign was quite humane for its time. The Secret Chancellery ceased to rage, and “the word and deed of the sovereign” became a thing of the past. The Empress not only did not sign a single death sentence, but actually abolished the death penalty in Russia.
Elizabeth's domestic policy was carried out in the interests of the nobility. To support entrepreneurship and ease the property situation of the nobles, the Noble Loan Bank was opened in May 1754 in St. Petersburg. This bank provided inexpensive loans to nobles at 6% per annum. The requirements for noble service were reduced. Under Peter I, young nobles had to begin serving as soldiers. Under Elizabeth, children were enrolled in the regiment from birth, and they appeared there already in the rank of officer. The nobles went on long-term vacations, sometimes lasting for years.
Elizabeth tried to support the merchants as well. In 1754, internal customs were liquidated and internal duties, which had long been collected along the roads of Russia and at the entrance to cities, were abolished. Duties on foreign goods have increased. In the cities, magistrates were restored - bodies of city self-government “from first-class citizens.”
During the reign of Elizabeth, Russian science and art developed. The government supported cultural figures. The Academy of Sciences was reformed, Russian scientists came there. In 1755, on the initiative and direct participation of I. I. Shuvalov and M. V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was opened. In 1758, the Academy of Arts opened. The navigation school, founded under Peter I, was renamed the Naval Gentry Cadet Corps.
Some changes were also made in the structure of the state apparatus. Elizabeth abolished the Cabinet of Ministers and restored the Senate to the meaning it had under Peter I. The Chief Magistrate, Manufactory and Berg Collegiums were also restored. At the same time, local government remained in the forms it had taken after Peter I. In 1756, the Conference at the Highest Court was established - a permanent meeting of ten highest dignitaries and generals. They discussed "the most important foreign affairs."
Under Elizabeth, Russia again began to pursue an active foreign policy. The beginning of Elizabeth's reign coincided with the Russian-Swedish war of 1741–1743. The Swedes wanted to take revenge for their defeat in the Northern War. This war turned out to be successful for Russia: part of Finland went to it.
Until 1744, Elizabeth adhered to a pro-French orientation in foreign policy. This was due to the great influence that the French envoy Chetardie had on her. However, later Russian diplomacy reoriented itself towards an alliance with Austria against Prussia. In 1756, Russia entered the Seven Years' War to expand its borders in the west. In 1759, near Kunersdorf, the Prussian army suffered a crushing defeat. The following year, Russian troops briefly occupied Berlin, the capital of Prussia. The successful completion of the defeat of the Prussian army was prevented by the death of Elizabeth. Her successor Peter III sharply changed Russian foreign policy towards an alliance with Prussia.
The Empress was passionate about the fine arts. She loved the theater very much and watched the same performances several times. Under her, the Russian professional theaters of F. Volkov and A. Sumarokov appeared. No expense was spared for the Italian opera.
By order of Elizabeth, the architect V.V. Rastrelli built the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg - the residence of the Russian emperors, the Grand Palace in Peterhof, the Tsarskoye Selo Palace, in which the Amber Room was installed - a gift from the Prussian king Frederick William I to the Russian Tsar Peter I.
At the end of her life, Elizabeth was sick a lot. She stopped engaging in government affairs and entrusted the management of the country to P.I. and I.I. Shuvalov, M.I. and R.I. Vorontsov and others. Her favorite A.E. Razumovsky enjoyed great influence.
Elizaveta Petrovna died at the age of 52. She is buried in St. Petersburg, in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.
PETER III(Karl Peter Ulrich)(02/10/1728 – 07/06/1762) - Russian emperor in the period from 12/25. 1761 to 06/28/1762
Karl Peter Ulrich, the future Emperor Peter III Fedorovich, was born in the small German principality of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp. His father was Duke Karl-Friedrich of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, and his mother was the Russian Grand Duchess Anna, daughter of Peter I. He was the grandson of Emperor Peter I and the nephew of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Peter III received the royal crown thanks to Elizabeth Petrovna, who appointed him as her successor. In 1742, he came to Russia as the official heir to the throne and converted to Orthodoxy. In 1745, he was married to the German princess Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, who after baptism received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna.
In con. 1761 Peter III became Russian Emperor and issued several important decrees. He abolished the Secret Chancellery, which was engaged in political investigation and considered cases of extreme importance. He issued a decree on the freedom of the nobility and stopped the persecution of schismatics. However, his admiration for Frederick II and the peace treaty with Prussia, as a result of which Russia lost everything it had won during the Seven Years' War of 1756–1763, caused discontent in Russian society. Peter III neglected Russian customs, introduced Prussian orders into the army, and thereby turned the guard against himself. A conspiracy arose, the soul of which was Ekaterina Alekseevna, the wife of Peter III. On June 28, 1762, a palace coup took place, during which the emperor was removed from power. On June 6, Peter III was killed at the Ropsha estate. Peter III is buried in the Peter and Paul Fortress.
EKATERINA II ALEKSEEVNA (04/21/1729-11/06/1796) - Russian Empress from 06/28/1762.
Catherine II, nee Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, was born in Stettin in Pomerania. Her father was Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, a native of an impoverished princely family of Northern Germany, a major general in the army of the Prussian king Frederick II.
In 1744, when the girl was 15 years old, she was matched to the heir to the Russian imperial throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich. In February 1744, at the invitation of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, she and her mother came to Moscow, where the Russian Empress and her court were at that time. A few months later, Sofia Augusta converted to Orthodoxy and received a new name - Ekaterina Alekseevna. The wedding with Pyotr Fedorovich took place on August 21, 1745 in St. Petersburg.
From the very beginning, the relationship between the young spouses did not work out. Peter was more interested in toys and soldiers than in his young wife. Her husband's inattention offended Catherine. Her relationship with Empress Elizabeth was tense, and Catherine did everything possible to gain popularity at court and among the guards. Grand Duchess She performed all Orthodox rituals seriously and zealously, and very quickly mastered the Russian language. Thanks to her intelligence, charm and natural tact, she managed to gain the favor of many Elizabethan nobles. Ekaterina Alekseevna's influence at court, among the guards and nobility, was constantly growing.
Catherine thought that the country could become powerful and rich only in the hands of an enlightened sovereign. She read the works of Plato, Plutarch, Tacitus, and the works of the French enlighteners Montesquieu and Voltaire. So she managed to fill in the gaps in her education and gain thorough knowledge in the field of history and philosophy.
On December 25, 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Catherine Alekseevna’s husband, Peter III, ascended the throne. He entered into an alliance with Prussia, abandoned Russia's victories in the Seven Years' War, and began to lose Russia's former allies. Peter raised the Germans, especially his relatives, and brought them closer to him. His policies aroused intense hostility among the guards and nobility. Even the Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility, published on February 18, 1762, could not soften the discontent. A conspiracy of courtiers and guards formed against Peter III, the center of which was his ambitious wife Ekaterina Alekseevna, and the main organizers were the Orlov brothers. On June 28, 1762, a palace coup took place. Relying on the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky guards regiments, Catherine removed her husband from power and proclaimed herself empress.
Having ascended the throne, Catherine II tried to implement a program of reforms in the economic and political life of Russia. In 1767, the Legislative Commission began its work in Moscow to develop a new Code - Code of Laws Russian Empire. Before the commission began its work, Catherine prepared an “Order”, intended to become the basis for the creation of the Code. Most suitable form The empress considered an absolute monarchy for Russia. At the same time, in her opinion, it was necessary to introduce laws that would protect the fundamental rights of subjects. The Empress insisted on the need for equality of all before the law. But Catherine did not at all intend to deprive the nobility, which was her support, of its main wealth - serfs. She did not think about freedom for the peasants - there were only general discussions about the humane treatment of the landowners with the peasants.
Under Catherine, elected courts first appeared in Russia. They were elected separately for nobles, for city residents and for state peasants. (The serfs were judged by the landowner himself.) The trial must be public, and without its decision no one could be found guilty. In “Nakaz”, Catherine opposed torture and the death penalty. She defended the need to develop trade and industrial activities, build new cities, and bring order to agricultural issues.
From the very beginning of the work of the Commission, sharp contradictions were revealed between representatives of different class groups that were part of it. In 1768, the activities of this body were suspended and then completely discontinued.
Catherine continued her reforms in 1775, after the suppression of the uprising of E.I. Pugachev. However, now she did not strive to draw up laws that would protect the rights of her subjects, but cared only about strengthening the foundations Russian statehood and increasing discipline.
On November 7, 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was published. His goal was to strengthen the local administrative apparatus and give the provincial nobility the means to suppress peasant uprisings. The number of provinces increased from 20 to 51. Each of them was divided into districts. The population of the provinces was 300-400 thousand inhabitants, and the district - 20-30 thousand.
The main merit of Catherine II in the field of education and culture was the creation of a system in Russia primary education for children from all classes, except serfs. Medical assistance also became a state matter. Every city was required to have a pharmacy and a hospital. Catherine was one of the first in Russia to get vaccinated against smallpox. This was the beginning of vaccination.
On April 21, 1785, “Charter Letters” were published for the nobility and cities. The nobility was given the exclusive right to own peasants, lands and subsoil; the right to establish plants and factories and sell wholesale everything that is produced in their domains; the right to organize auctions and fairs on their lands. Nobles were exempt from taxes and corporal punishment. The district nobles had to meet once every three years in the central city of the district and elect a local administration from among themselves. Cities received the right to elected self-government.
Catherine II pursued an active foreign policy. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars of 1768–1774 and 1787–1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were transferred to Russia. Russia gained access to the Black Sea, and was no longer threatened by the raids of the Crimean Tatars. Now it was possible to develop the black soil steppes. The Black Sea Fleet was created in the Black Sea.
In 1788, Swedish troops invaded the territory of the Russian Empire, but the war was inconclusive for Sweden: it did not gain any territories. In 1772–1795 Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which the territories of Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland were annexed to the Russian Empire.
Catherine II was extremely concerned about the outbreak of the revolution in France in 1789. The execution of Louis XVI in 1793 caused her indignation. The Empress allowed French emigrants to enter Russia and provided them with open financial support. All trade and diplomatic relations with France were severed. Preparations began for war, which stopped only after the death of the Empress in 1796.
Catherine nominated people who had already demonstrated their abilities to the highest government, military and administrative positions. Among them were E. A. Potemkin, P. A. Rumyantsev, Z. E. Chernyshev, brothers G. G. and A. G. Orlov, Ya. E. Sivere and others. During the reign of Catherine II, A. V. became famous for their victories . Suvorov and Admiral F. F. Ushakov.
IN recent years In her life, Catherine II was faced with the question of the heir to the throne. The Empress feared that her son, Pavel Petrovich, could ruin her life's work with his undertakings.
Before her death, Catherine II tried to transfer the imperial throne to her grandson Alexander Pavlovich over Paul’s head. But Alexander did not want to get into a quarrel with his father, and a number of influential dignitaries prevented the dying empress from carrying out this last political intrigue. Catherine II died on November 6, 1796. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Her son Pavel ascended the Russian throne.
Under Catherine II, Russia became a powerful state, rightfully taking its place as a great power on the world stage. However, autocracy and serfdom only became stronger under her. These facts did not fit into the circle of ideas of the European Enlightenment, which were shared by Catherine II.
PAUL I (20.09. 1754 – 03/12/1801) – Russian emperor in 1796–1801.
Pavel was the only son of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III) and Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna (future Empress Catherine II). From early childhood, he witnessed the palace intrigues and political struggles that accompanied the reign of his father and mother. In 1762, when Pavel was 8 years old, a palace coup took place, organized by Catherine against her husband. These events left a noticeable mark on the minds of the future Russian emperor. Catherine II entrusted the upbringing of her son to N.I. Panin, an enlightened nobleman who was not alien to constitutional ideas. Under his leadership, Pavel received a good education.
Growing up, the Grand Duke showed more and more dissatisfaction with the rule of his mother, who illegally seized power. N.I. Panin supported the claims of the crown prince, hoping that sooner or later Catherine would have to transfer power to Paul.
In September 1773, Pavel married Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt (in Orthodoxy Natalya Alekseevna). In April 1776, Natalya Alekseevna died from childbirth. The new wife of the heir to the Russian throne was the Württemberg princess Sophia Dorothea. The Grand Duchess in Orthodoxy received the name Maria Feodorovna.
In 1777, the young grand ducal couple had a son, Alexander, and in 1779, a second son, Konstantin. Catherine II herself began raising them. In 1796, the third son Nikolai was born.
In 1781–1782 Pavel and his wife traveled around Europe. Prussia made a particularly favorable impression on him. He took the Prussian order as a model, especially in the army.
In 1783, the Empress gave Paul the Gatchina estate. Very quickly, his patrimony took on the appearance of a military camp with outposts, barriers, barracks and guard posts. Pavel's concerns were related to the organization of the Gatchina troops - several battalions transferred under his command.
Catherine watched Paul's behavior with caution, and a decision matured in her mind - to deprive her son of the throne and hand it over to her eldest grandson, Alexander.
From the first days of his reign, the new emperor began to pursue a policy different from Catherine’s. Pavel solemnly reburied his father in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Then reforms began in the army. Many of Catherine's generals and officers were dismissed from service. The emperor introduced “stick” discipline in the army, fought against abuses and embezzlement of the command staff. He introduced Prussian-style uniforms, unusual for Russian soldiers, and forced them to engage in meaningless drills customary in the Prussian army. He surrounded himself with Germans and did not trust Russian officers. Pavel was afraid of conspiracies; he had an obsession with violent death, like his father, Peter III. His actions aroused hostility among generals and officers.
The new emperor took decisive measures to strengthen autocratic power. On April 5, 1797, on the day of coronation, the Act of Succession to the Throne was issued, according to which imperial power was inherited from father to son, and in his absence, to the next senior brother of the emperor. Paul I sought to increase discipline among government officials. Police control over public life has increased.
The policy of the new emperor on the peasant issue generally continued the policy of Catherine II. During the 4 years of his reign, Paul distributed more than 800 thousand state peasants into private hands. At the same time, some laws were issued to limit the exploitation of peasants. Paul I introduced the practice of swearing in peasants on an equal basis with nobles and
merchants. The Manifesto of April 5, 1797 prohibited corvee work on Sundays and advised landowners to limit themselves to three days of corvee a week. Paul's decrees made it possible for serfs to complain about their masters and thereby eased their lot.
At the same time, the new emperor sought to limit the privileges of the nobles. All the “minors” who were unable to carry military service, provincial noble assemblies were abolished, and the article of the “Charter of Complaint”, which prohibited corporal punishment of nobles, was abolished. At the same time, the emperor showed concern for the economic interests of the nobility. In 1797, the state Auxiliary Noble Bank was established, which issued loans secured by estates. In con. 18th century Several privileged educational institutions for nobles were founded.
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– He was present at the martyrdom of his grandfather, Emperor Alexander II.
– Received an extensive and varied education at the university level, knew Russian history and foreign languages well.
– A believer and devoted Christian to the Church, he religiously attended Sunday and holiday services.
– He firmly believed in the God-given origin of royal decisions, if they were made sincerely and with a pure heart; in the fact that God acts through his Anointed One on the throne; considered the archaic autocracy beneficial for Russian society.
- Political romantic, beloved sovereign - Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
– Shared illusory ideas about the loyal monarchism of the Russian people; in the spirit of the archaic autocratic tradition, he perceived Russia as his patrimony (“Master of the Russian Land”).
– During the coronation celebrations in Moscow on May 18, 1896, when more than two thousand people died and were maimed in a stampede on Khodynskoye Field, he still continued the festivities at a social ball given by French diplomats.
– Conservative in views, moderate in management methods. He showed himself to be a ruler of average abilities. He considered himself, first and foremost, a career officer and felt better in a military environment than among civilian bureaucrats.
– He tried to limit the growth of armaments on the world stage and wanted to avoid military conflicts in Europe, he initiated the convening of the Hague Peace Conference in 1899, and was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize (1901).
– A moderate anti-Semite, on the eve of the Great War of 1914 he prohibited admission to military educational institutions and the promotion of Jewish Christians to officer ranks.
- Before marriage, he was in love relationships with ballerina M. F. Kshesinskaya.
– Married to Alexandra Fedorovna (Victoria Alice Elena Louise Beatrice of Hesse-Darmstadt), who since 1915 has acquired significant negative impact for political administration, as well as some personnel appointments in the empire.
– By the will of his wife, he allowed occultists, mystics, false elders, holy fools (Nizier, Papus, Rasputin, etc.) to the Imperial Court, who discredited the throne, the sovereign and the royal family.
– Unlike his father, he was not independent, although he tried to emphasize his independence, he was under the strong influence of his wife.
– He often hesitated and was inconsistent when making political decisions.
– An exemplary family man, a loving and caring father, he considered the well-being and safety of the family to be the highest value. The marriage produced 5 children.
– Delicate, reserved, aristocratic and at the same time easy to communicate with. He had a broad outlook and an excellent memory, but at the same time he did not have necessary qualities for a comprehensive perception and broad assessment of government and political problems.
- Fall for flattery; I was tired of reports if they were truthful, so I imagined the real state of affairs in the empire superficially and distortedly.
- Fatalist. He was interested in hunting, photography and cars, and was interested in sports. Smoked.
– In July 1914, he tried to stop the outbreak of war in Europe and find a compromise with the German Emperor Wilhelm II.
– During the Great War, I repeatedly visited the location of the active army, including near the enemy, which made a favorable impression on the troops.
- Knight of St. George.
– Despite the objections of many statesmen, he assumed the post of Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Armed Forces, without having the necessary experience and abilities.
– Having become commander-in-chief, he continued to remain in the rank of guards colonel. With his composure he positively influenced the atmosphere and state of affairs at Headquarters.
– When making the most important operational decisions, he was guided to a greater extent by the wishes of the allies than by the national interests and capabilities of the army.
– He was rather indifferent to the high losses of troops, considering them inevitable.
- Since 1915, while at Mogilev Headquarters, he began to be less involved in state affairs, actually entrusting the management of the empire to his wife, in correspondence with whom he often shared information that constituted a military secret.
– In the winter of 1916-1917, he repeatedly left Headquarters and the High Command if his presence with the family was required.
– In the period 1915-1917, he stubbornly ignored numerous warnings about the need to change policy, compromise with the Duma and society in order to avoid the collapse of the monarchy; steadily lost personal authority not only among the people, but also among loyal monarchists, as well as relatives.
– After the outbreak of mass unrest in Petrograd on February 23, 1917, while at Headquarters in Mogilev, he showed passivity and indifference to reports on the situation in the capital, so orders to restore order were given belatedly.
– Abdicated the Russian throne on March 2, 1917, believing this to be good for the army and the Fatherland, in the hope of calming all-Russian unrest. Upon abdication, he illegally deprived the right to the throne of Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich, thereby destroying the established order of succession to the throne; freed the troops from their oath to the heir and contributed to the collapse of the constitutional-monarchical system.
– After his arrest by the Bolsheviks, in custody (1917-1918), he behaved meekly, humbly and with great dignity.
– Canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad
with family and servants as a martyr in 1981; He was glorified as a passion-bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church in 2000 along with his family.
On December 4, 1586, Mary Queen of Scots was sentenced to death for her role in the conspiracy. Russian monarchs were also killed, only the domestic “anointed of God” died, as a rule, not under the guillotine, but became victims of popular anger or palace intrigue.
The reign of Fyodor Godunov lasted only 7 weeks
On April 24, 1605, the very next day after the death of Tsar Boris Godunov, Moscow proclaimed his 16-year-old son Fedor, a talented and educated young man, fully prepared for the throne, to reign. But it was a troubled time - False Dmitry I was moving towards Moscow, plotting intrigues to seize the throne and was able to lure Prince Mstislavsky and many of those who had recently supported the Godunovs to his side. The ambassadors who arrived in Moscow, on behalf of the impostor at Lobnoye Mesto, read a message in which False Dmitry I called the Godunovs usurpers, himself - Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich, who allegedly managed to escape, promised all sorts of favors and benefits and called for swearing allegiance to himself. Popular unrest began, the crowd shouted “Down with the Godunovs!” rushed to the Kremlin.
With the connivance of the government of the boyars, Fyodor Godunov, his mother and sister Ksenia were placed in custody, and False Dmitry I ascended to the Russian throne. On June 20, 1605, Fyodor II Borisovich Godunov and his mother were strangled. This was the order of the new king. It was announced to the people that they themselves had taken poison.
The first Russian impostor tsar was killed at his own wedding
Historians consider False Dmitry I an adventurer who pretended to be Tsarevich Dmitry, the saved son of the Tsar. He became the first impostor who managed to take the Russian throne. False Dmitry stopped at nothing in his quest to become king: he made promises to the people and even staged his “confession” with Maria Naga, the mother of Tsarevich Dmitry.But very little time passed during the reign of False Dmitry I, and the Moscow boyars were very surprised that the Russian tsar did not observe Russian rituals and customs, but imitated the Polish monarch: he renamed the boyar duma into the Senate, made a number of changes to the palace ceremony and emptied the treasury with entertainment, expenses for maintenance of the Polish guards and for gifts for the Polish king.
A dual situation arose in Moscow - on the one hand, they loved the Tsar, but on the other, they were very dissatisfied with him. At the head of the dissatisfied were Vasily Golitsyn, Vasily Shuisky, Mikhail Tatishchev, Prince Kurakin, as well as the Kolomna and Kazan metropolitans. The tsar was to be killed by the archers and the killer of Tsar Fyodor Godunov, Sherefedinov. But the assassination attempt, planned for January 8, 1606, failed, and its perpetrators were torn to pieces by the crowd.
A more favorable situation for an assassination attempt arose in the spring, when False Dmitry I announced his wedding to the Polish Marina Mniszech. On May 8, 1606, the wedding took place, and Mniszech was crowned queen. The party lasted for several days, and the Poles who arrived for the wedding (about 2 thousand people) in a drunken stupor robbed passers-by, broke into the houses of Muscovites, and raped women. False Dmitry I retired from business during the wedding. The conspirators took advantage of this.
On May 14, 1606, Vasily Shuisky and his comrades decided to act. The Kremlin changed security, opened prisons and issued weapons to everyone. On May 17, 1606, an armed crowd entered Red Square. False Dmitry tried to escape and jumped out of the window of the chambers directly onto the pavement, where he was grabbed by archers and hacked to death. The body was dragged to Red Square, his clothes were torn off, a pipe was stuck in the mouth of the impostor king, and a mask was placed on his chest. Muscovites mocked the body for 2 days, after which they buried it behind the Serpukhov Gate in the old cemetery. But the matter did not end there. There were rumors that “miracles were happening” over the grave. They dug up the body, burned it, mixed the ashes with gunpowder and fired it from a cannon towards Poland.
Ivan VI Antonovich - the emperor who did not see his subjects
Ivan VI Antonovich is the son of Anna Leopoldovna, the niece of the childless Russian Empress Anna Ioannovna and Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick, the great-grandson of Ivan V. He was proclaimed Emperor in 1740 at the age of two months, and Duke of Courland E.I. Biron was declared regent. But a year later - on December 6, 1741 - a coup d'état took place, and the daughter of Peter I, Elizaveta Petrovna, ascended the Russian throne.
At first, Elizabeth thought of sending the “Brunswick family” abroad, but she was afraid that they might be dangerous. The deposed emperor with his mother and father were transported to Dynamunde, a suburb of Riga, and then north to Kholmogory. The boy lived in the same house with his parents, but in complete isolation from them, behind a blank wall under the supervision of Major Miller. In 1756 he was transferred to “solitary confinement” in the Shlisselburg fortress, where he was called a “famous prisoner” and kept in complete isolation from people. He couldn't even see the guards. The prisoner's situation did not improve either under Peter III or Catherine II.
During his imprisonment, several attempts were made to free the deposed emperor, the last of which turned out to be his death. On July 16, 1764, officer V.Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty at the Shlisselburg fortress, was able to win over part of the garrison to his side. He called for the release of Ivan and the overthrow of Catherine II. But when the rebels tried to free the prisoner Ivan VI, two guards who were constantly with him were stabbed to death. It is believed that Ivan Antonovich was buried in the Shlisselburg fortress, but in fact he became the only Russian emperor whose burial place is precisely unknown.
Peter III - Emperor deposed by his wife
Peter III Fedorovich - German prince Karl Peter Ulrich, son of Anna Petrovna and Karl Friedrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, grandson of Peter I - ascended the Russian throne in 1761. He was not crowned, ruled for only 187 days, but managed to make peace with Prussia, thereby erasing the results of the victories of the Russian troops in the Seven Years' War.
Peter's erratic actions in the domestic political arena deprived him of the support of Russian society, and many perceived his policies as a betrayal of Russian national interests. As a result, on June 28, 1762, a coup took place, and Catherine II was proclaimed empress. Peter III was sent to Ropsha (30 versts from St. Petersburg), where the deposed emperor died under unclear circumstances.
According to the official version, Peter III died either from a stroke or from hemorrhoids. But there is another version - Peter III was killed by guards in the ensuing fight, and 2 days before his officially announced death. Initially, the body of Peter III was buried in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, and in 1796 Paul I ordered the body to be transferred to the Peter and Paul Cathedral.
Paul I was strangled with a scarf
Many historians associate the death of Paul I with the fact that he dared to encroach on the world hegemony of Great Britain. On the night of March 11, 1801, conspirators burst into the imperial chambers and demanded that Paul I abdicate the throne.
The emperor tried to object, and, they say, even hit someone; in response, one of the rebels began to strangle him with a scarf, and another struck the emperor in the temple with a massive snuff box. It was announced to the people that Paul I had suffered an apoplexy. Tsarevich Alexander, who overnight became Emperor Alexander I, did not dare to touch his father’s murderers, and Russian politics returned to a pro-English channel.
On the same days in Paris, a bomb was thrown at Bonaparte's motorcade. Napoleon was not injured, and commented on what happened: “They missed me in Paris, but hit me in St. Petersburg.”
An interesting coincidence, 212 years later, on the same day as the assassination of the Russian autocrat, the disgraced oligarch Boris Berezovsky passed away.
Alexander II - Emperor, on whom 8 assassination attempts were made
Emperor Alexander II, the eldest son of the imperial couple Nicholas I and Alexandra Feodorovna, remained in the history of Russia as a reformer and liberator. Several attempts were made on Alexander II's life. In 1867 in Paris, the Polish emigrant Berezovsky tried to kill him, in 1879 in St. Petersburg - a certain Solovyov. But these attempts were unsuccessful, and in August 1879 the executive committee of Narodnaya Volya decided to kill the emperor. After this, 2 more unsuccessful attempts occurred: in November 1879, an attempt was made to blow up the imperial train, and in February 1880, an explosion occurred in the Winter Palace. To fight the revolutionary movement and protect state order, they even created a Supreme Administrative Commission, but this could not prevent the violent death of the emperor.
On March 13, 1881, when the Tsar was driving along the embankment of the Catherine Canal in St. Petersburg, Nikolai Rysakov threw a bomb directly under the carriage in which the Tsar was riding. Several people died from the terrible explosion, but the emperor remained unharmed. Alexander II got out of the broken carriage, approached the wounded, the detainee, and began to inspect the site of the explosion. But at that moment, the terrorist terrorist Ignatius Grinevitsky threw a bomb right at the feet of the emperor, mortally wounding him.
The explosion tore the emperor's stomach, tore off his legs and disfigured his face. While still conscious, Alexander was able to whisper: “To the palace, I want to die there.” He was carried into the Winter Palace and put to bed, already unconscious. On the spot where Alexander II was killed, the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood was built using public donations.
The last Russian emperor was shot in the basement
Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov, Nicholas II, was the last Russian emperor to ascend the throne in 1894 after the death of his father, Emperor Alexander III. On March 15, 1917, at the insistence of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma, the Russian emperor signed an abdication of the throne for both himself and his son Alexei and was placed under arrest with his family in the Alexander Palace of Tsarskoye Selo.
The Bolsheviks wanted to hold an open trial of the ex-emperor (Lenin was a supporter of this idea), and Trotsky was to act as the main accuser of Nicholas II. But information appeared that a “White Guard conspiracy” had been organized to kidnap the Tsar, and on April 6, 1918, the royal family was transported to Yekaterinburg and placed in Ipatiev’s house.
On the night of July 16-17, 1918, Emperor Nicholas II, his wife Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, their five children and close associates were shot in the basement.
To somehow dispel the gloomy mood, we invite you to get acquainted with the killer “hello” from Victorian era from the artist.
The history of Russia is rich in various eras, each of which left its mark on the life of the country. One of the most intense and controversial reigns was the reign of Peter I the Great, which ended on January 25, 1725 due to the sudden death of the emperor.
Russia without a Tsar? Who ruled after Peter 1
Three years before his death, the autocrat managed to issue a decree that changed the previously existing order of succession to the throne: now the heir became not the eldest son, but the one of the sons whom the father considered worthy to take such an honorable place. This decision was due to the fact that the king’s son, the potential heir to the throne, Tsarevich Alexei, was accused of preparing a conspiracy against his own father and, as a result, was sentenced to death. In 1718, the prince died within the walls of the Peter and Paul Fortress.
However, before his death, Peter I did not have time to appoint a new tsar, leaving the country, for the development of which he had made so much effort, without a ruler.
As a result, the next few years were marked by numerous goals aimed at seizing power. Since no official heir had been appointed, those wishing to sit on the throne tried to prove that they had earned this right.
The very first coup, carried out by the guards of the wife of Peter I - by birth Martha Skavronskaya, popularly known as Ekaterina Alekseevna Mikhailova (Catherine I) - brought the first woman in Russian history to power.
The enthronement of the future All-Russian Empress was supervised by an associate of the late Tsar, Prince Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the state.
Russia after Peter 1 is a special milestone in world history. The strict orderliness and discipline that had partly characterized the emperor's reign now lost their former force.
who is she?
Marta Skavronskaya (the empress's real name) came from a family of Baltic peasants. She was born on April 5, 1684. Having lost both parents at an early age, the girl was raised in the family of a Protestant pastor.
During the Northern War (between Sweden and Russia), in 1702, Marta, along with other residents, was captured by Russian troops, and then into the service of Prince Menshikov. There are two versions of how this happened.
One version says that Marta became the mistress of Count Sheremetyev, the commander of the Russian army. Prince Alexander Danilovich, the favorite of Peter the Great, saw her and, using his authority, took the girl to his house.
According to another version, Marta became the managing servant of Colonel Baur, where Menshikov set his sights on her and took her into his house. And already here Peter I himself noticed her.
Rapprochement with Peter I
For 9 years Martha was the king's mistress. In 1704, she gave birth to his first son, Peter, and then his second son, Pavel. However, both boys died.
The education of the future empress was carried out by the sister of Peter I, Natalya Alekseevna, who taught Martha to read and write. And in 1705, a girl was baptized into Orthodoxy under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna Mikhailova. In 1708 and 1709, Catherine’s daughters were born from Peter Alekseevich - Anna and Elizabeth (who later took the throne under the name
Finally, in 1712, the wedding with Peter I took place in the Church of John of Dalmitsky - Catherine became a full member of the royal family. The year 1724 was marked by the solemn coronation of Martha Skavronskaya in the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. She received the crown from the hands of the emperor himself.
Who ruled Rus' and when?
After the death of Peter 1, Russia fully learned what a country is worth without an imperious ruler. Since Prince Menshikov won the favor of the Tsar, and later helped Catherine I become the head of state, to the question of who ruled after Peter 1, the correct answer would be Prince Alexander Danilovich, who actively participated in the life of the country and made the most important decisions. However, the reign of the empress, despite such strong support, did not last long - until May 1727.
During Catherine I’s tenure on the throne, an important role in the politics of Russia at that time was played by the one created even before the empress’s ascension to the throne. Its members included such noble and prominent people in the Russian Empire of that time as Prince Alexander Menshikov (who headed this body), Dmitry Golitsyn, Fyodor Apraksin, Pyotr Tolstoy.
At the beginning of the reign of Catherine I, taxes were reduced and many people sentenced to exile and imprisonment were pardoned. Such changes were caused by the fear of riots due to price increases, which invariably should lead to discontent among ordinary people.
In addition, the reforms carried out by Peter were canceled or modified:
The Senate began to play a less prominent role in the political life of the country;
governors replaced local authorities;
For the improvement of the troops, a special Commission was organized, consisting of flagships and generals.
Innovations of Catherine I. Domestic and foreign policy
For those who ruled after Peter 1 (we are talking about his wife), it was extremely difficult to surpass the reformer tsar in the versatility of politics. Among the innovations, it is worth noting the creation of the Academy of Sciences and the organization of an expedition led by the famous navigator Vitus Bering to Kamchatka.
In foreign policy in general, Catherine I adhered to her husband’s views: she supported the claims of the Holstein Duke Karl Friedrich (who was her son-in-law) to Schleswig. This led to strained relations with England and Denmark. The result of the confrontation was the accession of Russia to the Union of Vienna (which included Spain, Prussia and Austria) in 1726.
Russia after Peter 1 acquired significant influence in Courland. It was so great that Prince Menshikov planned to become the head of this duchy, but local residents showed discontent about this.
Thanks to the foreign policy of Catherine I and Alexander Danilovich (who ruled Russia after the death of Peter 1 in fact), the empire was able to take possession of the Shirvan region (having achieved concessions in this matter from Persia and Turkey). Also, thanks to Prince Raguzinsky, friendly relations with China were established.
End of the Empress's reign
The power of Catherine I came to an end in May 1727, when the empress died at the age of 44 from lung disease. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Fortress.
Before her death, Catherine wanted to make her daughter Elizabeth empress, but once again she listened to Menshikov and appointed her grandson, Peter II Alekseevich, heir and Tsar of Russia, who was 11 years old at the time of his ascension to the throne.
The regent was none other than Prince Alexander Danilovich (this fact once again proves who ruled after Peter 1 in Russia). Menshikov soon married the newly-crowned tsar to his daughter Maria, thus further strengthening his influence on court and state life.
However, the power of Prince Alexander Danilovich did not last long: after the death of the emperor, he was accused of state conspiracy and died in exile.
Russia after Peter the Great is a completely different state, where the first place was not reforms and transformations, but the struggle for the throne and attempts to prove the superiority of some classes over others.
Peter I Alekseevich 1672 - 1725
Peter I was born on 05/30/1672 in Moscow, died on 01/28/1725 in St. Petersburg, Russian Tsar from 1682, Emperor from 1721. Son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from his second wife, Natalya Naryshkina. He ascended the throne at the age of nine, together with his elder brother Tsar John V, under the regency of his elder sister Princess Sophia Alekseevna. In 1689, his mother married Peter I to Evdokia Lopukhina. In 1690 a son was born, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, but family life didn't work out. In 1712, the tsar announced his divorce and married Catherine (Marta Skavronskaya), who had been his de facto wife since 1703. This marriage produced 8 children, but except for Anna and Elizabeth, they all died in infancy. In 1694, the mother of Peter I died, and two years later, in 1696, his elder brother, Tsar John V, also died. Peter I became the sole sovereign. In 1712, Petersburg, founded by Peter I, became the new capital of Russia, where part of the population of Moscow was transferred.
Catherine I Alekseevna 1684 - 1727
Catherine I Alekseevna was born on 04/05/1684 in the Baltic states, died on 05/06/1727 in St. Petersburg, Russian empress in 1725-1727. The daughter of the Lithuanian peasant Samuil Skavronsky, who moved from Lithuania to Livonia. Before accepting Orthodoxy - Marta Skavronskaya. In the fall of 1703 she became the de facto wife of Peter I. The church marriage was formalized on February 19, 1712. Following the decree on succession to the throne, not without the participation of A.D. Menshikov, she bequeathed the throne to the grandson of Peter I - 12-year-old Peter II. She died on May 6, 1727. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.
Peter II Alekseevich 1715 - 1730
Peter II Alekseevich was born on October 12, 1715 in St. Petersburg, died on January 18, 1730 in Moscow, Russian Emperor (1727-1730) from the Romanov dynasty. Son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and Princess Charlotte Christina Sophia of Wolfenbüttel, grandson of Peter I. Enthroned through the efforts of A.D. Menshikov, after the death of Catherine I, Peter II was not interested in anything except hunting and pleasure. At the beginning of the reign of Peter II, power was actually in the hands of A. Menshikov, who dreamed of becoming related to the royal dynasty by marrying Peter II to his daughter. Despite the engagement of Menshikov's daughter Maria to Peter II in May 1727, Menshikov's removal from business and disgrace followed in September, and then Menshikov's exile. Peter II came under the influence of the Dolgoruky family, I. Dolgoruky became his favorite, and Princess E. Dolgoruky became his fiancée. Real power was in the hands of A. Osterman. Peter II fell ill with smallpox and died on the eve of his wedding. With his death, the Romanov family in the male line was interrupted. He was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.
Anna Ioannovna 1693 - 1740
Anna Ioannovna was born on January 28, 1693 in Moscow, died on October 17, 1740 in St. Petersburg, Russian empress in 1730-1740. Daughter of Tsar Ivan V Alekseevich and P. Saltykova, niece of Peter I. In 1710 she was married to the Duke of Courland Friedrich-Velgem, soon became a widow and lived in Mitau. After the death of Emperor Peter II (he did not leave a will), the Supreme Privy Council, at a meeting in the Lefortovo Palace on January 19, 1730, decided to invite Anna Ioannovna to the throne. In 1731, Anna Ioannovna issued a Manifesto on a nationwide oath to the heir. 01/08/1732 Anna Ioannovna together with the court and the highest state officials. The institutions moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg. During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, power was in the hands of E. Biron, a native of Courland, and his henchmen.
Ivan VI Antonovich 1740 - 1764
John Antonovich was born on 08/12/1740, killed on 07/07/1764, Russian Emperor from 10/17/1740 to 11/25/1741. Son of Anna Leopoldovna and Prince Anton Ulrich of Brunswick-Brevern-Luneburg, great-grandson of Tsar Ivan V, great-nephew of Empress Anna Ioannovna. On November 25, as a result of a palace coup, the daughter of Peter I, Elizaveta Petrovna, came to power. In 1744, Ivan Antonovich was exiled to Kholmogory. In 1756 he was transferred to the Shlisselburg fortress. On July 5, 1764, Lieutenant V. Mirovich tried to free Ivan Antonovich from the fortress, but was unsuccessful. The guards killed the prisoner.
Elizaveta Petrovna 1709 - 1762
Elizaveta Petrovna was born on December 18, 1709 in the village of Kolomenskoye, near Moscow, died on December 25, 1761 in St. Petersburg, Russian Empress in 1741-1761, daughter of Peter I and Catherine I. She ascended the throne as a result of a palace coup on November 25, 1741, during of which representatives of the Brunswick dynasty (Prince Anton Ulrich, Anna Leopoldovna and Ivan Antonovich), as well as many representatives of the “German party” (A. Osterman, B. Minich, etc.) were arrested. One of the first actions of the new reign was to invite Elizaveta Petrovna's nephew Karl Ulrich from Holstein and declare him heir to the throne (the future Emperor Peter III). Actually the leader domestic policy under Elizaveta Petrovna became Count P. Shuvalov.
Peter III Fedorovich 1728 - 1762
Peter III was born on 02/10/1728 in Kiel, killed on 07/07/1762 in Ropsha near St. Petersburg, Russian Emperor from 1761 to 1762. Grandson of Peter I, son of Duke of Holstein-Gottop Karl Friedrich and Tsesarevna Anna Petrovna. In 1745 he married Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerb (future Empress Catherine II). Having ascended the throne on December 25, 1761, he immediately stopped military operations against Prussia in the Seven Years' War and ceded all his conquests to his admirer Frederick II. Anti-national foreign policy Peter III, disdain for Russian rites and customs, and the introduction of Prussian orders in the army caused opposition in the guard, headed by Catherine II. During the palace coup, Peter III was arrested and then killed.
Catherine II Alekseevna 1729 - 1796
Catherine II Alekseevna was born on 04/21/1729 in Stettin, died on 11/06/1796 in Tsarskoye Selo (now the city of Pushkin), Russian empress 1762-1796. She came from a small North German princely family. Born Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst. She was educated at home. In 1744, she and her mother were summoned to Russia by Empress Elizaveta Pertovna, baptized according to Orthodox custom under the name of Catherine and named the bride of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III), whom she married in 1745. In 1754, Catherine II gave birth to a son, the future Emperor Paul I After the accession of Peter III, who treated her more and more hostilely, her position became precarious. Relying on the guards regiments (G. and A. Orlovs and others), on June 28, 1762, Catherine II carried out a bloodless coup and became an autocratic empress. The time of Catherine II is the dawn of favoritism, characteristic of European life in the second half of the 18th century. Having parted with G. Orlov in the early 1770s, in subsequent years the empress changed a number of favorites. As a rule, they were not allowed to participate in resolving political issues. Only two of her famous favorites - G. Potemkin and P. Zavodovsky - became major statesmen.
Pavel I Petrovich 1754 - 1801
Paul I was born on September 20, 1754 in St. Petersburg, killed on March 12, 1801 in the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg, Russian Emperor 1796-1801, son of Peter III and Catherine II. He was brought up at the court of his grandmother Elizaveta Petrovna, who intended to make him heir to the throne instead of Peter III. The main educator of Paul I was N. Panin. Since 1773, Paul I was married to Princess Wilhelmina of Hesse-Darmstadt, and after her death, from 1776, to Princess Sophia Dorothea of Württemberg (in Orthodoxy, Maria Feodorovna). He had sons: Alexander (future Emperor Alexander I, 1777), Constantine (1779), Nicholas (future Emperor Nicholas I, 1796), Mikhail (1798), as well as six daughters. A conspiracy had matured among the guards officers, about which the heir to the throne, Alexander Pavlovich, was aware. On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the conspirators (Count P. Palen, P. Zubov, etc.) entered the Mikhailovsky Castle and killed Paul I. Alexander I ascended the throne, and in the very first weeks of his reign returned many exiled by his father and destroyed many of his innovations.
Alexander I Pavlovich 1777 - 1825
Alexander I was born on December 12, 1777 in St. Petersburg, died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog, Russian Emperor 1801-1825, the eldest son of Paul I. By the will of his grandmother Catherine II, he received an education in the spirit of the enlighteners of the 18th century. His mentor was Colonel Frederic de La Harpe, a republican by conviction, a future figure in the Swiss revolution. In 1793, Alexander I married the daughter of the Margrave of Baden, Louise Maria Augusta, who took the name Elizaveta Alekseevna. Alexander I inherited the throne after the assassination of his father in 1801 and undertook broadly conceived reforms. Alexander I became the main executor of social reforms in 1808-1812. his state secretary M. Speransky, who reorganized the ministries, created the state. council and carried out financial reform. In foreign policy, Alexander I participated in two coalitions against Napoleonic France (with Prussia in 1804-05, with Austria in 1806-07). Having been defeated at Austerlitz in 1805 and Friedland in 1807, he concluded the Peace of Tilsit in 1807 and an alliance with Napoleon. In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia, but was defeated during Patriotic War 1812. Alexander I, at the head of Russian troops, together with his allies, entered Paris in the spring of 1814. He was one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. According to official data, Alexander I died in Taganrog.
Nicholas I Pavlovich 1796 - 1855
Nicholas I was born on June 25, 1796 in Tsarskoe Selo, now the city of Pushkin, died on February 18, 1855 in St. Petersburg, Russian Emperor (1825-1855). The third son of Paul I. Enrolled in military service from birth, Nicholas I was raised by Count M. Lamsdorf. In 1814, he visited abroad for the first time with the Russian army under the command of his elder brother Alexander I. In 1816, he made a three-month trip through European Russia, and from October 1816 to May 1817, he traveled and lived in England. In 1817 he married eldest daughter Prussian King Frederick William II to Princess Charlotte Frederica Louise, who took the name Alexandra Feodorovna. Under Nicholas I, the monetary reform of the Minister of Finance E. Kankrin was successfully carried out, streamlining monetary circulation and protecting backward Russian industry from competition.
Alexander II Nikolaevich 1818 - 1881
Alexander II was born on 04/17/1818 in Moscow, killed on 03/01/1881 in St. Petersburg, Russian Emperor 1855-1881, son of Nicholas I. His educators were General Merder, Kavelin, as well as the poet V. Zhukovsky, who instilled in Alexander II liberal views and romantic attitude to life. In 1837, Alexander II made a long trip around Russia, then in 1838 - through the countries of Western Europe. In 1841 he married the Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, who took the name Maria Alexandrovna. One of the first acts of Alexander II was the pardon of the exiled Decembrists. 02/19/1861. Alexander II issued a manifesto on the liberation of peasants from serfdom. Under Alexander II, the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia was completed and its influence in the east expanded. Russia included Turkestan, the Amur region, the Ussuri region, and the Kuril Islands in exchange for the southern part of Sakhalin. He sold Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the Americans in 1867. In 1880, after the death of Empress Maria Alexandrovna, the Tsar entered into a morganatic marriage with Princess Ekaterina Dolgoruka. A number of attempts were made on the life of Alexander II; he was killed by a bomb thrown by Narodnaya Volya member I. Grinevitsky.
Alexander III Alexandrovich 1845 - 1894
Alexander III was born on 02/26/1845 in Tsarskoye Selo, died on 10/20/1894 in Crimea, Russian Emperor 1881-1894, son of Alexander II. The mentor of Alexander III, who had a strong influence on his worldview, was K. Pobedonostsev. After the death of his elder brother Nicholas in 1865, Alexander III became heir to the throne. In 1866, he married the fiancee of his deceased brother, the daughter of the Danish King Christian IX, Princess Sophia Frederica Dagmar, who took the name Maria Feodorovna. During the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-78. was the commander of the Separate Rushchuk detachment in Bulgaria. He created the Voluntary Fleet of Russia in 1878, which became the core of the country's merchant fleet and the reserve of the military fleet. Having ascended the throne after the assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881, he canceled the draft constitutional reform signed by his father immediately before his death. Alexander III died in Livadia in Crimea.
Nicholas II Alexandrovich 1868 - 1918
Nicholas II (Romanov Nikolai Alexandrovich) was born on May 19, 1868 in Tsarskoe Selo, executed on July 17, 1918 in Yekaterinburg, the last Russian emperor 1894-1917, son of Alexander III and the Danish princess Dagmara (Maria Feodorovna). From 02/14/1894 he was married to Alexandra Feodorovna (nee Alice, Princess of Hesse and Rhine). Daughters Olga, Tatyana, Maria, Anastasia, son Alexey. He ascended the throne on October 21, 1894 after the death of his father. 02/27/1917 Nicholas II, under pressure from the high military command, renounced the throne. On March 8, 1917, he was “deprived of his freedom.” After the Bolsheviks came to power, the regime for its maintenance was sharply strengthened, and in April 1918 the royal family was transferred to Yekaterinburg, where they were placed in the house of mining engineer N. Ipatiev. On the eve of the fall of Soviet power in the Urals, a decision was made in Moscow to execute Nicholas II and his relatives. The murder was entrusted to Yurovsky and his deputy Nikulin. The royal family and all the close associates and servants were killed on the night of July 16, 17, 1918; the execution took place in a small room on the ground floor, where the victims were taken under the pretext of evacuation. According to the official version, the decision to kill the royal family was made by the Urals Council, which feared the approach of Czechoslovak troops. However, in recent years it has become known that Nicholas II, his wife and children were killed on the direct orders of V. Lenin and Y. Sverdlov. Afterwards, the remains of the royal family were discovered and, by decision of the Russian government, on July 17, 1998, they were buried in the tomb of the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg. Russian Orthodox Church abroad canonized Nicholas II.
