At the current stage of development of the Russian Federation and neighboring states, which are successors of the former USSR, there are many political, economic and cultural problems. Their solution is impossible without a thorough analysis of the events associated with the process of collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. This article contains clear and structured information about the collapse of the USSR, as well as an analysis of events and personalities directly related to this process.
Brief background
The years of the USSR are a story of victories and defeats, economic rise and fall. It is known that the Soviet Union as a state was formed in 1922. After this, as a result of many political and military events, its territory increased. The peoples and republics that were part of the USSR had the right to voluntarily secede from it. Repeatedly, the country's ideology emphasized the fact that the Soviet state is a family of friendly peoples.
Regarding the leadership of such a huge country, it is not difficult to predict that it was centralized. Main body public administration there was the CPSU party. And the leaders of republican governments were appointed by the central Moscow leadership. The main legislative act regulating legal status affairs in the country, there was the Constitution of the USSR.
Reasons for the collapse of the USSR
Many powerful countries are experiencing difficult times in its development. Speaking about the collapse of the USSR, it should be noted that 1991 was a very difficult and contradictory year in the history of our state. What contributed to this? There are a huge number of reasons that led to the collapse of the USSR. Let's try to dwell on the main ones:
- authoritarianism of government and society in the state, persecution of dissidents;
- nationalist tendencies in the union republics, the presence of interethnic conflicts in the country;
- one state ideology, censorship, ban on any political alternative;
- economic crisis of the Soviet production system (extensive method);
- international fall in oil prices;
- a number of unsuccessful attempts to reform the Soviet system;
- colossal centralization of government bodies;
- military failure in Afghanistan (1989).
These, of course, are not all the reasons for the collapse of the USSR, but they can rightfully be considered fundamental.
The collapse of the USSR: the general course of events
With the appointment of Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev to the post of General Secretary of the CPSU in 1985, the policy of perestroika began, which was associated with sharp criticism of the previous government system, the disclosure of KGB archival documents and the liberalization of public life. But the situation in the country not only did not change, but also worsened. The people became more active politically, and the formation of many organizations and movements, sometimes nationalistic and radical, began. M. S. Gorbachev, President of the USSR, repeatedly came into conflict with the future leader of the country, B. Yeltsin, over the withdrawal of the RSFSR from the Union.
National crisis
The collapse of the USSR occurred gradually in all sectors of society. The crisis has come both economically and foreign policy, and even demographically. This was officially announced in 1989.
In the year of the collapse of the USSR it became obvious eternal problem Soviet society - commodity shortage. Even essential products are disappearing from store shelves.
Softness in the country's foreign policy results in the fall of regimes loyal to the USSR in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Romania. New national states are being formed there.
It was also quite turbulent within the country itself. Mass demonstrations begin in the union republics (demonstration in Almaty, the Karabakh conflict, unrest in the Fergana Valley).
There are also rallies in Moscow and Leningrad. The crisis in the country plays into the hands of the radical democrats, led by Boris Yeltsin. They are gaining popularity among the dissatisfied masses.
Parade of sovereignties
In early February 1990, the Party's Central Committee announced the annulment of its dominance in power. Democratic elections were held in the RSFSR and the Union republics, in which radical political forces in the form of liberals and nationalists won.
In 1990 and early 1991, a wave of protests swept across the Soviet Union, which historians later called the “parade of sovereignties.” During this period, many of the union republics adopted Declarations of Sovereignty, which meant the supremacy of republican law over the all-Union law.
The first territory that dared to leave the USSR was the Nakhichevan Republic. This happened back in January 1990. It was followed by: Latvia, Estonia, Moldova, Lithuania and Armenia. Over time, all allied states will issue Declarations of their independence (after the GKChP putsch), and the USSR will finally collapse.
The last president of the USSR
Central role in the collapse process Soviet Union played by the last president of this state - M. S. Gorbachev. The collapse of the USSR took place against the backdrop of Mikhail Sergeevich’s desperate efforts to reform Soviet society and the system.
M. S. Gorbachev was from the Stavropol Territory (the village of Privolnoye). The statesman was born in 1931 into a very simple family. After graduation high school continued his studies at the Faculty of Law of Moscow State University, where he headed the Komsomol organization. There he met his future wife, Raisa Titarenko.
During his student years, Gorbachev was active political activity, joined the ranks of the CPSU and already in 1955 took the position of secretary of the Stavropol Komsomol. Gorbachev advanced career ladder civil servant quickly and confidently.
Coming to power
Mikhail Sergeevich came to power in 1985, after the so-called “era of deaths of general secretaries” (three leaders of the USSR died in three years). It should be noted that the title “President of the USSR” (introduced in 1990) was only borne by Gorbachev; all previous leaders were called General Secretaries. The reign of Mikhail Sergeevich was characterized by thorough political reforms, which were often not particularly thought out and radical.
Attempts at reform
Such socio-political transformations include: prohibition, the introduction of self-financing, money exchange, the policy of openness, acceleration.
For the most part, society did not appreciate the reforms and had a negative attitude towards them. And there was little benefit to the state from such radical actions.
In his foreign policy, M. S. Gorbachev adhered to the so-called “policy of new thinking,” which contributed to the detente of international relations and the end of the “arms race.” For this position, Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize. But the USSR at that time was in a terrible situation.
August putsch
Of course, attempts to reform Soviet society, and ultimately completely destroy the USSR, were not supported by many. Some supporters of the Soviet government united and decided to speak out against the destructive processes that were taking place in the Union.
The GKChP putsch was a political uprising that took place in August 1991. His goal is the restoration of the USSR. The 1991 coup was regarded by the official authorities as an attempted coup.
The events took place in Moscow from August 19 to 21, 1991. Among the many street clashes, the main striking event that ultimately led to the collapse of the USSR was the decision to create the State Committee for the State of Emergency (GKChP). This was a new body formed by state officials, headed by USSR Vice President Gennady Yanaev.
Main reasons for the coup
The main reason for the August putsch can be considered dissatisfaction with Gorbachev's policies. Perestroika did not bring the expected results, the crisis deepened, unemployment and crime grew.
The last straw for future putschists and conservatives was the President’s desire to transform the USSR into a Union of Sovereign States. After M. S. Gorbachev left Moscow, the dissatisfied did not miss the opportunity for an armed uprising. But the conspirators failed to retain power; the putsch was suppressed.
The significance of the GKChP putsch
The 1991 coup launched an irreversible process towards the collapse of the USSR, which was already in a state of continuous economic and political instability. Despite the desire of the putschists to preserve the state, they themselves contributed to its collapse. After this event, Gorbachev resigned, the structure of the CPSU collapsed, and the republics of the USSR began to gradually proclaim their independence. The Soviet Union was replaced by a new state - Russian Federation. And 1991 is understood by many as the year of the collapse of the USSR.
Bialowieza Accords
The 1991 Bialowieza Accords were signed on December 8th. Officials of three states - Russia, Ukraine and Belarus - put their signatures on them. The agreements were a document that legislated the collapse of the USSR and the formation new organization mutual assistance and cooperation - Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
As mentioned earlier, the GKChP putsch only weakened the central authorities and thereby accompanied the collapse of the USSR. In some republics, separatist tendencies began to brew, which were actively promoted in the regional media. As an example, we can consider Ukraine. In the country, in a national referendum on December 1, 1991, almost 90% of citizens voted for the independence of Ukraine, and L. Kravchuk was elected president of the country.
In early December, the leader made a statement that Ukraine was abandoning the 1922 treaty on the creation of the USSR. The year 1991, therefore, became the starting point for Ukrainians on the path to their own statehood.
The Ukrainian referendum served as a kind of signal for President Boris Yeltsin, who began to more persistently strengthen his power in Russia.
Creation of the CIS and the final destruction of the USSR
In turn, a new chairman was elected in Belarus Supreme Council S. Shushkevich. It was he who invited the leaders of neighboring states Kravchuk and Yeltsin to Belovezhskaya Pushcha to discuss the current situation and coordinate subsequent actions. After minor discussions between the delegates, the fate of the USSR was finally decided. The Treaty establishing the Soviet Union of December 31, 1922 was denounced, and in its place a plan for the Commonwealth of Independent States was prepared. After this process, many disputes arose, since the agreement on the creation of the USSR was supported by the Constitution of 1924.
However, it should be noted that the Belovezhskaya Agreements of 1991 were adopted not by the will of three politicians, but by the wishes of the peoples of the former Soviet republics. Just two days after the signing of the agreement, the Supreme Councils of Belarus and Ukraine adopted an act of denunciation of the union treaty and ratified the agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States. In Russia, on December 12, 1991, the same procedure took place. Not only radical liberals and democrats, but also communists voted for the ratification of the Belovezhskaya Accords.
Already on December 25, USSR President M. S. Gorbachev resigned. So, relatively simply, they destroyed the government system, which had existed for years. Although the USSR was an authoritarian state, there were certainly positive sides to its history. Among them are social security for citizens, the presence of clear government plans for the economy and superior military power. Many people to this day remember life in the Soviet Union with nostalgia.
December 26, 1991 is the official date of the collapse of the USSR. A day earlier, President Gorbachev announced that, for “reasons of principle,” he would cease his activities in his post. On December 26, the Supreme USSR adopted a declaration on the collapse of the state.
The collapsed Union included 15 Soviet Socialist Republics. The Russian Federation became the legal successor of the USSR. Russia declared sovereignty on June 12, 1990. Exactly a year and a half later, the country's leaders announced secession from the USSR. Legal "independence" December 26, 1991.
The Baltic republics were the first to declare their sovereignty and independence. Already on 16 1988, the Estonian SSR declared its sovereignty. A few months later in 1989, the Lithuanian SSR and the Latvian SSR also declared sovereignty. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania even received legal independence somewhat earlier than the official collapse of the USSR - on September 6, 1991.
On December 8, 1991, the Union of Independent States was created. In fact, this organization failed to become a real Union, and the CIS turned into a formal meeting of the leaders of the participating states.
Among the Transcaucasian republics, Georgia wanted to secede from the Union the fastest. The independence of the Georgian Republic was declared on April 9, 1991. The Republic of Azerbaijan declared independence on August 30, 1991, and the Republic of Armenia on September 21, 1991.
From August 24 to October 27, Ukraine, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan declared their withdrawal from the Union. Besides Russia, Belarus (left the Union on December 8, 1991) and Kazakhstan (withdrew from the USSR on December 16, 1991) took the longest to declare their secession from the USSR.
Failed attempts at independence
Some Autonomous Regions and Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics also previously tried to secede from the USSR and declare independence. They eventually succeeded, albeit together with the republics that these autonomies were part of.
On January 19, 1991, the Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, which was part of the Azerbaijan SSR, tried to secede from the Union. After some time, the Nakhichevan Republic, as part of Azerbaijan, managed to leave the USSR.
Currently, a new union is being formed in the post-Soviet space. The unsuccessful project of the Union of Independent States is being replaced by integration in a new format - the Eurasian Union.
Tatarstan and Checheno-Ingushetia, which had previously tried to leave the USSR on their own, left the Soviet Union as part of the Russian Federation. The Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic also failed to gain independence and left the USSR only together with Ukraine.
The collapse of the USSR is one of the most important events XX century. Until now, the meaning and reasons for the collapse of the Union cause heated discussions and various kinds of disputes among both political scientists and ordinary people.
Reasons for the collapse of the USSR
Initially, the highest officials of the world's largest state planned to preserve the Soviet Union. To do this, they had to take timely measures to reform it, but in the end it happened. There are various versions that convey in some detail possible reasons. For example, researchers believe that initially, when the state was created, it should have become entirely federal, but over time the USSR turned into a state and this gave rise to a series of inter-republican problems that were not given due attention.
During the years of perestroika, the situation became quite tense and became extremely violent. Meanwhile, the contradictory ones became increasingly widespread, economic difficulties became insurmountable, and it became completely clear that the collapse. It is also worth noting that in those days the most important role in the life of the state was played by the Communist Party, which in some sense was even a more significant bearer of power than the state itself. It was precisely what happened in the Communist system of the state that became one of the reasons why the Soviet Union collapsed.
The Soviet Union collapsed and ceased to exist at the end of December 1991. The consequences of the collapse took on an economic nature, because it caused the collapse of a large number of established connections that were established between economic entities, and also led to the minimum value of production and its production. At the same time, access to foreign markets ceased to have a guaranteed status. The territory of the collapsed state also decreased significantly, and the problems associated with the insufficient development of infrastructure became more noticeable.
The collapse of the Soviet Union affected not only economic relations and states, but also had political consequences. Russia's political potential and influence significantly decreased, and a problem arose concerning small segments of the population who at that time lived in territory that did not belong to their homelands. This is just a small part negative consequences that befell Russia after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
“The indestructible union of free republics,” began the anthem of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. For decades, citizens of the largest state on the globe sincerely believed that the Union was eternal, and no one could even imagine the possibility of its collapse.
The first doubts about the inviolability of the USSR appeared in the mid-80s. 20th century. In 1986, a protest demonstration took place in Kazakhstan. The reason was the appointment to the post of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Republic of a person who had nothing to do with Kazakhstan.
In 1988 there followed a conflict between Azerbaijanis and Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh, in 1989 - clashes between Abkhazians and Georgians in Sukhumi, a conflict between Meskhetian Turks and Uzbeks in the Fergana region. The country, which until now was in the eyes of its inhabitants “a family of fraternal peoples,” is turning into an arena of interethnic conflicts.
To a certain extent, this was facilitated by the crisis that hit the Soviet economy. For ordinary citizens, this meant a shortage of goods, including food.
Parade of sovereignties
In 1990, competitive elections were held for the first time in the USSR. In republican parliaments, nationalists dissatisfied with the central government gain an advantage. The result was events that went down in history as the “Parade of Sovereignties”: the authorities of many republics began to challenge the priority of all-Union laws and established control over the republican economies to the detriment of the all-Union one. In the conditions of the USSR, where each republic was a “workshop,” the collapse of economic ties between the republics aggravates the crisis.
The first union republic to declare its secession from the USSR was Lithuania, this happened in March 1990. Only Iceland recognized the independence of Lithuania, the Soviet government tried to influence Lithuania through an economic blockade, and in 1991 used military force. As a result, 13 people died and dozens of people were injured. The reaction of the international community forced a stop to the use of force.
Subsequently, five more republics declared their independence: Georgia, Latvia, Estonia, Armenia and Moldova, and on June 12, 1990, the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the RSFSR was adopted.
Union Treaty
The Soviet leadership seeks to preserve the disintegrating state. In 1991, a referendum was held on the preservation of the USSR. It was not carried out in the republics that had already declared their independence, but in the rest of the USSR the majority of citizens were in favor of preserving it.
A draft union treaty is being prepared, which was supposed to transform the USSR into a Union of Sovereign States, in the form of a decentralized federation. The signing of the agreement was planned on August 20, 1991, but was thwarted as a result of a coup attempt undertaken by a group of politicians from the inner circle of Soviet President M. Gorbachev.
Bialowieza Agreement
In December 1991, a meeting took place in Belovezhskaya Pushcha (Belarus), in which the leaders of only three union republics - Russia, Belarus and Ukraine - took part. It was planned to sign a union treaty, but instead the politicians stated the demise of the USSR and signed an agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States. It was not or even a confederation, but an international organization. The Soviet Union as a state ceased to exist. The liquidation of his power structures after that was a matter of time.
The Russian Federation became the successor of the USSR in the international arena.
Sources:
- Collapse of the USSR in 2019
Reasons for the collapse of the USSR
Let's consider the most basic versions of why the USSR collapsed. In order to analyze the reasons for the collapse of the USSR, some return to 1991, to the days of the August Putsch, and others to 1985, when the “perestroika” Gorbachev came to power. But personally, I am inclined to think that we need to move back to the 1980s, it was then that the so-called point of no return began, from which the countdown to the existence of the USSR began. So let's start in order.
- Personnel shortage
Probably one of the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR is the shortage of party personnel. To do this, it is enough to remember, thanks to whom the USSR was formed and who was its leadership initially? At first, these were, in fact, fanatics of their idea, revolutionaries who sought to overthrow the tsarist regime and build communism, where all people are equal and, working, will live in abundance. After the war, leading positions in the USSR were occupied by former military men, this disciplined old generation who had an ardent communist ideology, they really wanted to build communism. Most of them could not even admit the thought that even a single penny from the state budget was stolen, although they took advantage of state benefits and their official position, but this can not be taken into account at all, especially when compared with today’s leaders. However, this old generation could not exist forever, when the leaders began to die; they could not find worthy personnel to replace them, or the worthy ones were simply not allowed in, since those who remained had their own plans.
Probably, it all started from the moment when “dear” Leonid Ilyich became completely “bad”; many witnesses of that period noted that General Sec. I failed very much, and quite quickly and strongly. The reason for this, many historians call “Brezhnev’s injections”, which were injected into him by a nurse, a KGB employee. At the same time, the logical chain converges, the chairman of the KGB at that time was Andropov, he had long been aiming to replace Brezhnev, and it is quite possible that such injections were actually purposefully administered to worsen the health of Leonid Ilyich. Andropov's dream came true; in November 1982, he headed the state after the death of Brezhnev, at 69 years old.
But Andropov’s reign ended after 15 months, since before taking up the post of General Secretary, he knew that he did not have long to live, but, nevertheless, he took such a high post. Andrpov's death was the second funeral in 2 years, when the last funeral Soviet leader were in 1953. The second death in a row of the country's leader in such a short period of time could not but affect the country in all its spheres. Andropov’s place was taken by Chernenko, who at that time was already 72 years old, but Konstantin Ustinovich also died almost a year after his appointment to the country’s main position. The third funeral was a blow for the USSR, the country is losing the ideological fundamentalists of communism, and also does not have a clear path of development, since Andropov and Chernenko had their own plans, but did not have time to implement them.
Jokes on this topic even began to circulate among the people. Understanding such an absurd situation, the Politburo decides to choose the relatively young Gorbachev as the leader of the country, who at that time was 54 years old, and he was really young in the political bureau, from that moment the collapse of the USSR began to occur at an irreversible pace, Gorbachev became the catalyst for this process.
The incompetence of the new leadership led by Gorbachev, as well as new cadres in politics. bureau and leadership of the country, who ultimately turned out to be traitors, the desire of the leaders of the union republics to secede and make their countries independent in order to lead them themselves - all this is the result of Gorbachev’s perestroika.
- “Everyone pulled the blanket over themselves”
As was said just above, all the leaders of the union states “pulled the blanket over themselves” and they all wanted independence. Perestroika weakened tight control over both leaders and people. As a result, all the leaders of the union states, one way or another, tried to secede and declare independence at the right opportunity. The destruction of the Berlin Wall and the unification of Germany added fuel to the fire. Mass protests and unrest in the Baltic states and some other republics contributed to their imbalance.
The beginning of the end occurred in August 1991, when the “August Putsch” occurred; as a result of this coup d’etat, within a month, the Baltic countries left the USSR. After this, the Soviet Union began to crumble. This also includes the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, where a military clash began between the Armenian SSR and the Azerbaijani USSR, Moldova, etc.
Against the backdrop of all these events, after the referendum on “preserving the union,” the leadership of the union republics nevertheless declared independence.
- Ideology has outlived its usefulness
It’s no secret that the USSR was based on communist ideology; it was propagated from everywhere. From birth, the child was instilled with communist values, even starting from kindergarten, and especially at school, in which all the students became Octobrists, and then pioneers, and so on. More than one generation lived according to this scheme, but the years passed, the world changed, and communist ideology could not resist it.
The main ideologists of the country and leaders passed away and in their place, as was said in the first reason, incompetent people came who did not believe in communism, they did not need it. Moreover, people themselves stopped believing in him, especially when the crisis began.
The rallies suppressed by the special services and the persecution of opposition figures were probably one of the keys to the successful existence of the USSR, but during perestroika, the oppositionists became more active and launched active, unhindered activities.
Perhaps the Chernobyl disaster can be attributed to this reason, since it dealt a significant blow to both the reputation of the USSR and its leaders and affected people. The Soviet system, which forced builders into a framework for delivering objects within a certain time frame, and to coincide with communist holidays, made itself felt, and very cruelly, with the Chernobyl tragedy. The fourth power unit of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, and exactly like all the previous three units, were commissioned with violations; according to experts, the fourth power unit could not be operated at all, since it did not meet safety standards; the builders needed to commission it on time. This factor, as well as the looseness of the system and the experiments carried out on that ill-fated night, became fatal in everything. The deliberate concealment of the consequences of the explosion further aggravated the situation. As a result, all this was a powerful blow to the entire Soviet system and the country as a whole.
- Crisis in all areas
As they say: the fish rots from the head, and this is what happened to the Soviet Union. Gorbachev was not a strong leader, and in order to hold such a large country, you need strong man. The country needed radical reforms, but all the reforms undertaken were failures. Lack of goods on shelves, constant shortages, huge queues, depreciation of money - all these are the consequences of perestroika. People are simply tired of living like this, or rather surviving, without any prospect that this crisis will ever end.
- "Pepsi-Cola and jeans"
With Gorbachev’s coming to power, the Iron Curtain began to slowly rise, and Western fashion poured in, its main attributes, perhaps, being jeans and Pepsi-Cola. Seeing how they live in the West, how they dress, what they drive, etc. Soviet citizens wanted the same. By the end of the 80s, the words “Lenin” and “communism” became the subject of ridicule, people felt the smell of freedom and wanted change, which was reflected in V. Tsoi’s song.
- The Americans still won
Everyone knows that America was the main enemy of the USSR. There has always been confrontation between the USA and the USSR, and in almost everything. Both countries were considered superpowers and fought for world domination, and the ideologies and worldviews of the two countries were completely different.
There is a version that Gorbachev collaborated with the United States, it was not for nothing that they called him “ good guy" There is also an opinion that Brezhnev, Andropov and Chernenko were killed, and all traces of these murders lead to the CIA. The neutralization of the entire old party nomenklatura, those hardened ones, and the appointment of Gorbachev, a pro-democratic politician, was to the advantage of the Americans. The Cold War of that time ended peacefully and in cold blood. Why fight the system with weapons if you can help this system become obsolete...
These, in my opinion, are the main reasons why the Soviet Union collapsed. Someone, for sure, will be inclined to one of the versions, but someone, including myself, is inclined to all these versions, that is, all the reasons listed above collectively provoked the collapse of the USSR, some of them to a greater extent, to some to a lesser extent, but, nevertheless, all of the above played a role.
As for the consequences, we can see them ourselves; not a single country that was part of the USSR, after the collapse, acquired the values it aspired to. But, nevertheless, there is no need to be nostalgic about the USSR, since life then was closed, people were simply kinder, and there was less theft by government managers, that’s the whole secret of the fabulous time.
Collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States
Throughout 1990 and especially 1991, one of the main problems facing the USSR was the problem of signing a new Union Treaty. Work on its preparation led to the emergence of several projects that were published in 1991. In March 1991, on the initiative of M. Gorbachev, an all-Union referendum was held on the question of whether or not to exist the USSR and what it should be like. The majority of the population of the USSR voted to preserve the USSR.
This process was accompanied by an exacerbation of interethnic contradictions that led to open conflicts (pogroms of the Armenian population in Sumgait in 1989, in Baku in 1990, Nagorno-Karabakh, clashes between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz in the Osh region in 1990, armed conflict between Georgia and South Ossetia in 1991 year).
The incitement of interethnic conflicts was facilitated by the actions of the Union Center and the army command (the dispersal of demonstrations in Tbilisi by troops in April 1989, the deployment of troops in Baku, the seizure of the television center in Vilnius by the army). As a result of interethnic conflicts, by 1991, about 1 million refugees appeared in the USSR.
The new authorities in the union republics, formed as a result of the 1990 elections, turned out to be more determined to change than the union leadership. By the end of 1990, almost all republics of the USSR adopted Declarations of their sovereignty and the supremacy of republican laws over union ones. A situation arose that observers dubbed a “parade of sovereignties” and a “war of laws.” Political power gradually moved from the Center to the republics.
The confrontation between the Center and the Republic was expressed not only in the “war of laws”, i.e. situations when the republics declared, one after another, the supremacy of republican laws over union ones, but also in a situation when the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Supreme Councils of the union republics adopted laws that contradict each other. Some republics disrupted military conscription; Bypassing the Center, they concluded bilateral agreements on state relations and economic cooperation.
At the same time, both in the Center and locally, fears and fears of the uncontrollable collapse of the USSR were brewing. All this taken together gave special significance to the negotiations on the new Union Treaty. In the spring and summer of 1991, meetings of the heads of the republics were held at the residence of the President of the USSR M. Gorbachev, Novo-Ogarevo, near Moscow. As a result of long and difficult negotiations, an agreement was reached, called “9 + 1”, i.e. nine republics and the Center that decided to sign the Union Treaty. The text of the latter was published in the press, the signing of the agreement was scheduled for August 20th.
M. Gorbachev went on vacation to Crimea, to Foros, intending to return to Moscow on August 19. On August 18, some senior officials from state, military and party structures arrived to M. Gorbachev in Foros and demanded that he authorize the introduction of a state of emergency throughout the country. The President refused to comply with these demands.
On August 19, 1991, the Decree of Vice-President G. Yanaev and the Statement of the Soviet leadership were read out on radio and television, in which it was announced that M. Gorbachev was ill and that he was unable to fulfill his duties, and that all power in the country was being taken over by The State Committee for the State of Emergency of the USSR (GKChP) itself was introduced, “to meet the demands of broad sections of the population,” throughout the entire territory of the USSR for a period of 6 months from 4 o’clock on August 19, 1991. The State Emergency Committee included: G. Yanaev - Vice-President of the USSR, V. Pavlov - Prime Minister, V. Kryuchkov - Chairman of the KGB of the USSR, B. Pugo - Minister of Internal Affairs, O. Baklanov - first Chairman of the USSR Defense Council, A. Tizyakov is the chairman of the Association of State Enterprises and Industrial, Transport and Communication Facilities of the USSR and V. Starodubtsev is the chairman of the Peasant Union.
On August 20, a kind of manifesto of the State Emergency Committee was published - “Appeal to the Soviet people.” It said that perestroika had reached a dead end (“the results of the national referendum on the unity of the Fatherland have been trampled, tens of millions of Soviet people have lost the joy of life... in the very near future a new round of impoverishment is inevitable.”). The second part of the “Appeal” consisted of promises from the State Emergency Committee: to hold a national discussion of the draft of the new Union Treaty, restore law and order, support private entrepreneurship, solve food and housing problems, etc.
On the same day, Resolution No. 1 of the State Emergency Committee was published, which ordered that laws and decisions of government and administrative bodies that contradict the laws and Constitution of the USSR be considered invalid, that rallies and demonstrations be prohibited, that control be established over the media, that prices be reduced and that those wishing to receive 0, 15 hectares of land and increase wages.
The first reaction to the fact of the creation of the State Emergency Committee in Kazakhstan was wait-and-see. All republican newspapers, radio and television of the republic conveyed to the population all the documents of the State Emergency Committee. According to the chairman of the USSR State Television and Radio Broadcasting Company L. Kravchenko, N. Nazarbayev prepared a special video with words of recognition and support for the State Emergency Committee. N. Nazarbayev's televised address was sent to Moscow for broadcast on Channel One, but was not shown.
Published on August 19, N. Nazarbayev’s address “To the People of Kazakhstan” did not contain any assessments of what was happening and boiled down to calls for calm and restraint; it also indicated that a state of emergency was not being introduced on the territory of Kazakhstan. In Almaty on August 19, only a few representatives of democratic parties and movements - “Azat”, “Azamat”, “Alash”, “Unity”, “Nevada-Semey”, SDPK, the “Birlesy” trade union, etc. gathered a rally and issued a leaflet , in which the incident was called a coup d'etat and called on Kazakhstanis not to be accomplices in the crime and to bring the coup organizers to justice.
On the second day of the putsch, August 20, N. Nazarbayev issued a Statement in which he expressed his condemnation of the putsch in cautious terms, but still definitely. In the republic as a whole, many heads of regions and departments actually supported the putschists, developing, with varying degrees of readiness, measures to transition to a state of emergency.
On August 21, the coup failed. Gorbachev M. returned to Moscow. The Prosecutor General's Office opened criminal cases against the conspirators. After the defeat of the putsch, a series of actions by the President and Parliament of Kazakhstan followed.
On the same day, the Decree of N. Nazarbayev dated August 22 “On termination of activities organizational structures political parties, other public associations and mass social movements in prosecutorial bodies, state security, internal affairs, police, state arbitration, courts and customs of the Kazakh SSR."
On August 25, the Presidential Decree “On the property of the CPSU on the territory of the Kazakh SSR” was issued, according to which the property of the CPSU located on the territory of Kazakhstan was declared the property of the state.
On August 28, the Plenum of the CPC Central Committee was held, at which N. Nazarbayev resigned from his duties as the first secretary of the CPC Central Committee. The Plenum adopted two resolutions: on the termination of the activities of the Central Committee of the CPC and on the convening of the XVIII (extraordinary) Congress of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan in September 1991 with the agenda “On the Communist Party of Kazakhstan in connection with the political situation in the country and the CPSU.”
On August 30, the Presidential Decree of August 28 “On the inadmissibility of combining leadership positions in government bodies and management with positions in political parties and other socio-political associations.”
August 29 - Decree on the closure of the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site.
In addition, N. Nazarbayev issued decrees “On the formation of the Security Council of the KazSSR”, “On the transfer of state-owned enterprises and organizations of union subordination to the jurisdiction of the government of the KazSSR”, “On the creation of the gold reserve and diamond fund of the KazSSR”, “On ensuring the independence of foreign economic activity of the KazSSR” .
After August 1991, the process of collapse of the USSR proceeded at a faster pace. In September 1991, the V (extraordinary) Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR took place in Moscow. At the suggestion of M. Gorbachev, N. Nazarbayev read out a statement by the President of the USSR and the top leaders of the union republics, which proposed:
- - firstly, immediately conclude economic union between republics;
- -secondly, in the conditions of the transition period, create the State Council as supreme body USSR authorities.
On September 5, 1991, the congress adopted the Constitutional Law on Power in the Transitional Period, and then resigned its powers to the State Council of the USSR and the then not yet formed Supreme Council of the USSR. This desperate attempt by M. Gorbachev to preserve the Center was not crowned with success - most of the republics did not send their representatives to the State Council.
However, the State Council, consisting of the highest officials republics of the USSR, began its work on September 9, 1991 with the recognition of the independence of the Baltic states. The USSR was officially reduced to 12 republics.
In October, eight union republics signed the Economic Community Treaty, but it was not respected. The process of disintegration increased.
In November 1991, in Novo-Ogarevo, seven republics (Russia, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan) declared their intention to create a new interstate entity - the Union of Sovereign States (USS). The G7 leaders decided to sign a new Union Treaty by the end of 1991. Its initialing was scheduled for November 25, 1991. But this did not happen either. Only ML Gorbachev put his signature, and the project itself was sent for approval to the parliaments of seven republics. It was just an excuse. In fact, everyone was waiting for the outcome of the referendum on Ukrainian independence scheduled for December 1, 1991.
The population of Ukraine, which unanimously voted for the preservation of the USSR in March 1991, voted equally unanimously for the complete independence of Ukraine in December 1991, thereby burying M. Gorbachev’s hopes of preserving the USSR.
The powerlessness of the Center led to the fact that on December 8, 1991, in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, near Brest, the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine signed the Agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). This Agreement stated that Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a subject of international law ceased to exist. The reaction of the Asian republics to the creation of the CIS was negative. Their leaders perceived the fact of the formation of the CIS as an application for the creation of a Slavic federation and, as a consequence, the possibility of political confrontation between the Slavic and Turkic peoples.
On December 13, 1991, at an urgently convened meeting in Ashgabat of the leaders of the “five” (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan), the leader of Turkmenistan S. Niyazov (according to N. Nazarbayev) proposed considering the possibility of creating a Confederation of Central Asian States in response to the decisions in Belovezhskaya Pushcha.
Ultimately, the leaders of the “five” made it clear that they did not intend to join the CIS as affiliated participants, but only as founders, on an equal basis, on “neutral” territory. Common sense triumphed, decorum was maintained, and on December 21, a meeting of the leaders of the “troika” (Belarus, Russia, Ukraine) and the “five” (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan) took place in Almaty. 
At the Alma-Ata meeting, the Declaration () was adopted on the cessation of the existence of the USSR and the formation of the CIS consisting of eleven states.
On December 25, M. Gorbachev signed a Decree on the removal of his functions Supreme Commander-in-Chief and announced his resignation from the post of President of the USSR. On December 26, one of the two chambers of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR that was able to convene - the Council of Republics - adopted a formal Declaration on the cessation of the existence of the USSR.
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ceased to exist.
The participants of the Alma-Ata meeting adopted a package of documents,
according to which:
- — the territorial integrity of the states that were members of the Commonwealth was stated;
- — unified command of military-strategic forces and unified control over nuclear weapons were maintained;
- — the highest authorities of the CIS “Council of Heads of State” and “Council of Heads of Government” were created;
- - the open character of the Commonwealth was declared.
TASS-DOSSIER /Kirill Titov/. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, formed in 1922, was created by the leadership of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) as the basis for the future world revolution. The declaration of its formation stated that the Union would be “a decisive step towards uniting the working people of all countries into the World Socialist Soviet Republic.”
To attract to the USSR as much as possible more socialist republics in the first Soviet constitution (and all subsequent ones), each of them was assigned the right to freely secede from the Soviet Union. In particular, in the last Basic Law of the USSR - the Constitution of 1977 - this norm was enshrined in Article 72. Since 1956, the Soviet state included 15 union republics.
Reasons for the collapse of the USSR
From a legal point of view, the USSR was an asymmetrical federation (its subjects had different statuses) with elements of a confederation. At the same time, the union republics were in an unequal position. In particular, the RSFSR did not have its own Communist Party or Academy of Sciences; the republic was also the main donor of financial, material and human resources for the other members of the Union.
The unity of the Soviet state system was ensured by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). It was built on a strict hierarchical principle and duplicated everything government bodies Union. In Article 6 of the Basic Law of the USSR of 1977, the Communist Party was assigned the status of “the leading and directing force of Soviet society, its core political system, government and public organizations."
By the 1980s The USSR found itself in a state of systemic crisis. A significant part of the population has lost faith in the dogmas of the officially declared communist ideology. The economic and technological lag of the USSR from Western countries became evident. As a result of the national policy of the Soviet government, independent national elites were formed in the union and autonomous republics of the USSR.
An attempt to reform the political system during perestroika 1985–1991. led to the aggravation of all existing contradictions. In 1988–1990 On the initiative of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee Mikhail Gorbachev, the role of the CPSU was significantly weakened.
In 1988, the reduction of the party apparatus began, and a reform of the electoral system was carried out. In 1990, the constitution was changed and Article 6 was eliminated, as a result of which the CPSU was completely separated from the state. At the same time, inter-republican relations were not subject to revision, which led, against the backdrop of weakening party structures, to a sharp increase in separatism in the union republics.
According to a number of researchers, one of the key decisions during this period was Mikhail Gorbachev’s refusal to equalize the status of the RSFSR with other republics. As Assistant Secretary General Anatoly Chernyaev recalled, Gorbachev “ironly” stood against the creation of the Communist Party of the RSFSR and the granting of full status to the Russian republic." Such a measure, according to a number of historians, could contribute to the unification of Russian and allied structures and ultimately preserve a single state.
Interethnic clashes
During the years of perestroika in the USSR, interethnic relations sharply worsened. In 1986, major interethnic clashes occurred in Yakutsk and Alma-Ata (Kazakh SSR, now Kazakhstan). In 1988, the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict began, during which the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region, populated by Armenians, announced its secession from the Azerbaijan SSR. This was followed by the Armenian-Azerbaijani armed conflict. In 1989, clashes began in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Moldova, South Ossetia, etc. By mid-1990, more than 600 thousand citizens of the USSR became refugees or internally displaced persons.
"Parade of Sovereignties"
In 1988, a movement for independence began in the Baltic states. It was led by the “popular fronts” - mass movements created with the permission of the Union authorities in support of perestroika.
On November 16, 1988, the Supreme Council (SC) of the Estonian SSR adopted a declaration on the state sovereignty of the republic and introduced changes to the republican constitution, which made it possible to suspend the operation of union laws on the territory of the Estonia. On May 26 and July 28, 1989, similar acts were adopted by the Armed Forces of the Lithuanian and Latvian SSR. On March 11 and 30, 1990, the Armed Forces of Lithuania and Estonia adopted laws on the restoration of their own independent states, and on May 4, the Latvian Parliament approved the same act.
On September 23, 1989, the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR adopted a constitutional law on the state sovereignty of the republic. During 1990, similar acts were adopted by all other union republics.
Law on the withdrawal of union republics from the USSR
On April 3, 1990, the USSR Supreme Council adopted the law “On the procedure for resolving issues related to the withdrawal of a union republic from the USSR.” According to the document, such a decision was to be made through a referendum appointed by the local legislative body. Moreover, in the union republic, which included autonomous republics, regions and districts, the plebiscite was to be held separately for each autonomy.
A decision to withdraw was considered legitimate if it was supported by at least two-thirds of voters. Issues of the status of allied military facilities, enterprises, financial and credit relations of the republic with the center were subject to settlement during a transition period of five years. In practice, the provisions of this law were not implemented.
Proclamation of the sovereignty of the RSFSR
The Declaration of State Sovereignty of the RSFSR was adopted on June 12, 1990 by the First Congress of People's Deputies of the Republic. In the second half of 1990, the leadership of the RSFSR, headed by Chairman of the Supreme Council Boris Yeltsin, significantly expanded the powers of the government, ministries and departments of the RSFSR. Enterprises, branches of union banks, etc. located on its territory were declared the property of the republic.
The Declaration of Russian sovereignty was adopted not to collapse the Union, but to stop the withdrawal of autonomies from the RSFSR. The autonomization plan was developed by the CPSU Central Committee in order to weaken the RSFSR and Yeltsin, and envisaged giving all autonomies the status of union republics. For the RSFSR, this meant the loss of half of its territory, almost 20 million people and most of its natural resources.
Sergey Shakhrai
in 1991 - advisor to Boris Yeltsin
On December 24, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR adopted a law according to which Russian authorities could suspend the operation of union acts “if they violate the sovereignty of the RSFSR.” It was also stipulated that all decisions of the authorities of the USSR would come into force on the territory of the Russian republic only after their ratification by its Supreme Council. At a referendum on March 17, 1991, the post of president of the republic was introduced in the RSFSR (Boris Yeltsin was elected on June 12, 1991). In May 1991, its own special service was created - the State Security Committee (KGB) of the RSFSR.
New Union Treaty
At the last, XXVIII Congress of the CPSU on July 2–13, 1990, USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev announced the need to sign a new Union Treaty. On December 3, 1990, the USSR Supreme Council supported the project proposed by Gorbachev. The document provided for a new concept of the USSR: each republic included in its composition received the status of a sovereign state. The allied authorities retained a narrow scope of powers: organizing defense and ensuring state security, developing and implementing foreign policy, economic development strategies, etc.
On December 17, 1990, at the IV Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev proposed “to hold a referendum throughout the country so that every citizen would speak for or against the Union of Sovereign States on a federal basis.” Nine of the 15 union republics took part in the vote on March 17, 1991: the RSFSR, the Ukrainian, Belarusian, Uzbek, Azerbaijan, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tajik and Turkmen SSR. The authorities of Armenia, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova and Estonia refused to hold a vote. 80% of citizens who had the right to do so took part in the referendum. 76.4% of voters were in favor of preserving the Union, 21.7% were against.
As a result of the plebiscite, it was developed new project Union Treaty. On its basis, from April 23 to July 23, 1991, at the residence of the USSR President in Novo-Ogarevo, negotiations were held between Mikhail Gorbachev and the presidents of nine of the 15 union republics (RSFSR, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Kazakh, Uzbek, Azerbaijan, Tajik, Kyrgyz and Turkmen USSR) on the creation of the Union of Sovereign States. They were called the “Novo-Ogarevo process”. According to the agreement, the abbreviation “USSR” in the name of the new federation was to be retained, but deciphered as “Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics.” In July 1991, the negotiators approved the draft agreement as a whole and scheduled its signing at the time of the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in September-October 1991.
On July 29–30, Mikhail Gorbachev held closed meetings with the leaders of the RSFSR and KazSSR Boris Yeltsin and Nursultan Nazarbayev, during which he agreed to postpone the signing of the document to August 20. The decision was caused by fears that the USSR people's deputies would vote against the treaty, which envisaged the creation of a de facto confederal state in which most powers were transferred to the republics. Gorbachev also agreed to dismiss a number of senior leaders of the USSR who had a negative attitude towards the “Novo-Ogarevo process”, in particular, Vice-President of the USSR Gennady Yanaev, Prime Minister Valentin Pavlov and others.
On August 2, Gorbachev spoke on Central Television, where he stated that on August 20, the new Union Treaty would be signed by the RSFSR, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, and the remaining republics would do this “at certain intervals.” The text of the treaty was published for public discussion only on August 16, 1991.
August putsch
On the night of August 18-19, a group of eight senior leaders of the USSR (Gennady Yanaev, Valentin Pavlov, Dmitry Yazov, Vladimir Kryuchkov, etc.) formed the State Committee for a State of Emergency (GKChP).
In order to prevent the signing of the Union Treaty, which, in their opinion, would lead to the collapse of the USSR, members of the State Emergency Committee tried to remove USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev from power and introduced a state of emergency in the country. However, the leaders of the State Emergency Committee did not dare to use force. On August 21, USSR Vice President Yanaev signed a decree dissolving the State Emergency Committee and invalidating all its decisions. On the same day, the act of canceling the orders of the State Emergency Committee was issued by the President of the RSFSR, Boris Yeltsin, and the prosecutor of the republic, Valentin Stepankov, issued an order to arrest its members.
Dismantling of government structures of the USSR
After the events of August 1991, the union republics, whose leaders participated in the negotiations in Novo-Ogarevo, declared their independence (August 24 - Ukraine, 30th - Azerbaijan, 31st - Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, the rest - in September-December 1991 G.). On August 23, 1991, President of the RSFSR Boris Yeltsin signed a decree “On the suspension of the activities of the Communist Party of the RSFSR”, all property of the CPSU and the Communist Party of the RSFSR in Russia was nationalized. On August 24, 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev dissolved the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR.
On September 2, 1991, the Izvestia newspaper published a statement by the President of the USSR and senior leaders of 10 union republics. It spoke of the need to “prepare and sign by all willing republics a Treaty on the Union of Sovereign States” and to create union coordinating governing bodies for the “transition period.”
On September 2–5, 1991, the V Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR (the highest authority in the country) took place in Moscow. On the last day of the meetings, the law “On Bodies of State Power and Administration of the USSR in the Transitional Period” was adopted, according to which the Congress dissolved itself and all state power was transferred to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
As a temporary body of the highest union administration, “for the coordinated resolution of issues of domestic and foreign policy,” the State Council of the USSR was established, consisting of the President of the USSR and the heads of the RSFSR, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Armenia, Tajikistan, and Azerbaijan. At meetings of the State Council, discussions continued on the new Union Treaty, which in the end was never signed.
The law also liquidated the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR and abolished the post of vice-president of the Soviet Union. The Interrepublican Economic Committee (IEC) of the USSR, headed by the former chairman of the government of the RSFSR Ivan Silaev, became the equivalent of the union government. The activities of the IEC on the territory of the RSFSR were terminated on December 19, 1991, its structures were finally liquidated on January 2, 1992.
On September 6, 1991, in contradiction with the current Constitution of the USSR and the law on the withdrawal of union republics from the Union, the State Council recognized the independence of the Baltic republics.
On October 18, 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev and the leaders of eight union republics (excluding Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia and Azerbaijan) signed the Treaty on the Economic Community of Sovereign States. The document recognized that “independent states” are “former subjects of the USSR”; assumed the division of the all-Union gold reserves, the Diamond and Monetary Fund; maintaining the ruble as a common currency, with the possibility of introducing national currencies; liquidation of the State Bank of the USSR, etc.
On October 22, 1991, a decree of the State Council of the USSR was issued on the abolition of the union KGB. On its basis, it was ordered to create the Central Intelligence Service (CSR) of the USSR (foreign intelligence, on the basis of the First Main Directorate), the Inter-Republican Security Service (internal security) and the Committee for the Protection of the State Border. The KGB of the union republics were transferred “to the exclusive jurisdiction of sovereign states.” The all-Union intelligence service was finally liquidated on December 3, 1991.
On November 14, 1991, the State Council adopted a resolution on the liquidation of all ministries and other central authorities public administration of the USSR from December 1, 1991. On the same day, the heads of seven union republics (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, RSFSR, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan) and USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to sign on December 9 a new Union Treaty, according to which the Union of Sovereign States will be formed as a "confederal democratic state". Azerbaijan and Ukraine refused to join it.
Liquidation of the USSR and creation of the CIS
On December 1, a referendum on independence was held in Ukraine (90.32% of those who took part in the vote were in favor). On December 3, RSFSR President Boris Yeltsin announced recognition of this decision.
Even already in Viskuli, even two hours before the signing of what we signed, I did not feel that the USSR would be broken. I lived within the myth of the great Soviet empire. I understood that if there were nuclear weapons, no one would attack the USSR. And without such an attack, nothing will happen. I thought the transformation of the political system would happen much more smoothly
Stanislav Shushkevich
in 1991 - Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Belarusian SSR
On December 8, 1991, the leaders of the RSFSR, Ukraine and Belarus Boris Yeltsin, Leonid Kravchuk and Stanislav Shushkevich at the government residence of Viskuli (Belovezhskaya Pushcha, Belarus) signed an Agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and the dissolution of the USSR. On December 10, the document was ratified by the Supreme Councils of Ukraine and Belarus. On December 12, a similar act was adopted by the Russian parliament. According to the document, the scope of joint activities of CIS members included: coordination of foreign policy activities; cooperation in the formation and development of a common economic space, pan-European and Eurasian markets, in the field of customs policy; cooperation in the field of protection environment; migration policy issues; fight against organized crime.
On December 21, 1991, in Almaty (Kazakhstan), 11 leaders of the former Soviet republics signed a declaration on the goals and principles of the CIS, its foundations. The Declaration confirmed the Bialowieza Agreement, indicating that with the formation of the CIS, the USSR ceases to exist.
On December 25, 1991 at 19:00 Moscow time, Mikhail Gorbachev spoke in live Central Television and announced the termination of his activities as President of the USSR. On the same day, the state flag of the USSR was lowered from the flagpole of the Moscow Kremlin and the state flag of the Russian Federation was raised.
On December 26, 1991, the Council of Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a declaration which stated that in connection with the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the USSR as a state and a subject of international law ceases to exist.
