Special organs, naturally designed for the production and perception of speech sounds, in humans are like biological species No. The oral and nasal cavities, teeth, tongue, lips, etc. are organs that performed and continue to perform primarily other, purely biological functions. However, over the course of long evolution, these organs have adapted to the production and perception of speech sounds. In the speech apparatus) with broadly understood This term also includes the central nervous system, respiratory and hearing organs.
Rice. 4.1.
Speech motor control is one of the functions of the central nervous system, for which Broca’s center is “responsible”, and speech perception is provided by Wernicke’s auditory center 1. Violation of at least one of the brain's speech centers leads to more or less serious speech disorders - aphasia.
In order for speech sound to occur, the functioning of the respiratory organs is necessary. Respiratory organs- these are the lungs, bronchi and windpipe (trachea). The lungs and bronchi are the source and conductor of the air stream, which causes vibrations of the organs of the pronunciation apparatus, and first of all, the vocal cords.
Articulatory apparatus. In a narrow sense, these are speech organs that, through various movements and positions (articulations), provide all the qualitative diversity of sounds of human speech.
Speech (pronunciation, articulatory) apparatus, thus, this is system of human organs located
in the larynx, pharynx and oral cavity and adapted for the production of speech sounds.
Strictly speaking, the aspiration of German and English is not actually a consonant: the letter b in English, him means only that the vowel has an aspirate. Therefore, it is unacceptable to replace English [h] with Russian [x]. By the way, to the English it seems to the ear that Russian [x] is [k], pronounced with strong aspiration. Therefore, when transliterating Russian surnames containing the sound [x] into English the letter combination kh is used, for example: Kharlamov - Kharlamov.
According to the nature of their participation in the pronunciation of sounds, the speech organs are divided into active And passive.
Active organs are organs that perform various movements necessary to produce speech sounds.
We feel the movements of some active organs quite well (lips, tongue), but we do not feel the movements of others, deeper ones (soft palate, vocal cords). Active organs are the vocal cords, tongue (the most active organ of speech, especially its anterior part => [s.], lips, soft palate, uvula (Latin uvula), posterior dorsum of the pharynx (Greek pharynx).
Active work lips(rounding, stretching, closing or bringing together) provides formation ruined(from lat. labia - labialized) vowels (for example, Russian [o] and [u]) and labial consonants (for example, Russian [b] and [p], English [w]).
Plays a very important (but completely unnoticed by the speaker) role in the formation of vowels and consonants in any language. soft palate, also called velum; it really opens and closes the nasal cavity: when the velum is lowered, when the air stream freely penetrates into the nasal cavity, nasal resonance occurs, characteristic of nasal vowels (in French, Polish, Old Church Slavonic and some other languages) and consonants - in all languages. When the velum is raised, the soft palate closes the passage into the nasal cavity for the air stream; in this case, non-nasal (pure) speech sounds arise, which numerically predominate in any language.
Unlike the soft palate, whose work is relevant for all languages, uvula, representing its extremity, is used to form uvular consonants only in some languages, for example [R] in French.
Passive organs are immobile, but they interact
with active ones, creating a closure or gap at the site of formation
speech sound.
Passive organs are teeth, alveoli (tubercles at the roots of the upper teeth, from the Latin alveolus - groove), hard palate.
Articulation of speech sound. For the formation of each speech sound it is necessary complex work of the speech organs, i.e. quite definite articulation (from Lat. articularis - articular, articulate). Thus, articulation is the total work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce a sound.
The articulatory characteristic of speech sound turns out to be multidimensional, while the number and nature of movements performed during the formation different types sounds - vowels or consonants - are not the same => [see. table 4.9].
When articulating vowels, the main thing is the vertical and horizontal movement of the tongue in the oral cavity, although the work of the lips and palate and the participation of the nasal cavity are additionally possible. Thus, when articulating Russian [and]:
- 1)vocal cords closed, tense and trembling;
- 2) velum raised;
- 3)language advanced horizontally forward as far as possible and raised quite high to the hard palate in its middle part.
All these movements do not create speech noise, but change the shape of the resonator and, as a result, the timbre of the vowel.
When forming consonants, the interaction of various active and passive organs, the closure or formation of a gap, which creates different type noise that forms the basis of the timbre of a consonant. For example, the articulation of the sound [b] consists of the total work four active organs:
- 1)vocal cords tense and trembling (noisy, voiced);
- 2) velum raised (non-nasal, or clean);
- 3) the middle part of the back of the tongue is lowered, i.e. not raised to the hard palate (non-palatalized, or hard);
- 4) lips closed (labial-labial, or bilabial), the air stream forcefully opens the barrier, formed by closed lips (closed plosive).
These are the movements and states of the speech organs that form an articulatory-acoustic unity, perceived by all speakers as a typical sound of a given language.
The given articulatory characteristics also provide a difference in the acoustic properties of these sounds.
Articulation phases. Human speech in any language is a kind of sound stream. In other words, certain sets of sounds that form the material shell of words and morphemes as significant parts in the structure of a word are by no means a simple sequence of units isolated from each other. The process of articulation is a complex process: when we speak, sounds in the most subtle way, and at the same time with great speed, adapt, “grind in” to each other. In fact, any speech sound, when surrounded by other sounds, i.e. being surrounded by different “neighbors”, it certainly changes its sound. Thus, the initial consonant C sounds differently in Russian words soot, cold, scrap, skate, milk, dispute, damp, (Cooking etc., because it is followed by various consonants and vowels (these are capitalized in the series of examples given), each of which will have a different effect on this consonant S.
Let us give a number of more examples: the consonants D, R, S, etc. before the rounded (labialized) vowels U and O (doc, rock, juice, spirit, hand, court) are not articulated exactly as they are before the vowels A or Y (gift, times, garden, holes, lynx, cheese)] The vowels A and O between nasal M and N are pronounced slightly differently than between non-nasal (pure) B and D.
What are these differences and what causes them?
The fact is that the articulation of an isolated speech sound is carried out in three stages, which are usually called phases articulation (and the ego, in principle, you can try to “track” simply by focusing on the movements of the speech organs, i.e. without special equipment).
First phase - excursion(from lat. excursio - sally, running forward), or attack, is the phase in which the organs of speech emerge from a state of rest, making movements and occupying positions necessary to pronounce the corresponding vowel or consonant.
Let's say we need to pronounce the Russian consonant [z]. To do this, at the excursion stage simultaneously The following articulatory actions are performed: vocal cords close, tense and begin to tremble; velum rises, closing the entrance to the nasal resonator (nasal cavity); middle part of the back of the tongue falls; front of tongue approaches the upper teeth.
The second phase is exposure, or exposition, in which the speech organs maintain (maintain) a certain - depending on the articulated sound - “working state” for the required time.
Third phase - recursion(from lat. recursus- return), or indentationin which the speech organs return to their original state of rest.
We emphasize that this is what the phases of articulation look like in relation to pronunciation isolated sound. In reality, in the process of communication, as noted above, the so-called stream of speech, which means that after sustaining the first sound, the speech organs do not return into a state of rest. In fact, in the contact zone of any sounds, a peculiar thing occurs compound, or, more precisely, interaction sounds, in which one of the phases, for example the previous sound, seems to become the starting position for the articulation of the subsequent one. Thus, in the flow of speech there is a close interweaving of contacting sound units, and the “consequences” of such interaction are not only diverse in principle, but can also be highly specific to individual languages.
Phase the nature of articulation explains not only the interaction of sounds in the flow of speech => [p. 130], but also the presence in the language of sounds of complex articulation (affricates and diphthongs) => [p. 122, 125].
The nature of the voicing of words, and therefore the nature and degree of depth of interaction of sounds within and/or at the junction of “sound complexes”, may depend on both the style of pronunciation and the type of pronunciation (full, i.e. careful and slow, or neutral, or fast, etc.) .e. conversational and even careless), and on intonation and expressed content and communicative intention ( intentions) speaker.
Native speakers, for objective reasons, are not able to record all possible nuances sound modification. Not only because the capabilities of our hearing are limited, but also because there is no psychological attitude towards their perception. However, some sound differences are noticed and recognized by speakers.
Practice examples
Native speakers of the Russian language, in particular, are quite well aware of examples of different, situationally determined voicing of such words (and this is hardly an exhaustive list of variations), such as Hello[hello], [hello]; Now([s’ich’as], [sh’ch’as], [sh’sh’as] and [pGsh’az!]); Today([s’ivod’n’a], [s’od’n’a]); fifty([p’id’:is’at], [and ’ii’sat], [ps’at]); What([what], [wh’o], [that ]);ruble([ruble’], [rupe’]> [ruble’el’]), etc.
Give examples of real situations of choosing one or another pronunciation option. => [Chr:..., Bondarko, fragment 2, and also Chr. to ch. 12, About Reformatsky’s pronunciation style).
- Broca's center is a section of the cerebral cortex, named after the French anthropologist and surgeon P. Broca, located in the posteroinferior part of the third frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere (in right-handers), the work of which ensures the motor organization of speech and which is a kind of speech analyzer (Dictionary medical terms).
- Wernicke's center is a section of the cerebral cortex, named after the German neurologist and psychiatrist K. Wernicke, located in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus of the left hemisphere (in right-handed people), providing sound phonemic analysis of oral speech and representing the actual verbal analyzer (Dictionary of Medical Terms).
- Aspirated consonants, or aspirates (from the Latin aspnratio - aspiration), are formed by the friction of air on the vocal cords due to the narrowing of the interligamentous gap without muscle tension. There are no such consonants in Russian.
Speech apparatus - this is the totality and interaction of human organs necessary for the production of speech. It consists of two sections: central and peripheral. The central section is the brain with its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways and nuclei of the corresponding nerves. The peripheral department is the entire set of executive organs of speech, including bones, cartilage, muscles and ligaments, as well as peripheral sensory and motor nerves, with the help of which the work of these organs is controlled.
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three main sections that act together.
1st department- respiratory organs, since all speech sounds are formed only during exhalation. These are the lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm, intercostal muscles. The lungs rest on the diaphragm, an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, is dome-shaped. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the volume chest increases and inhalation occurs, when they relax - exhale;
2nd department- passive speech organs are immobile organs that serve as a fulcrum for active organs. These are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx. They have the greatest influence on speech technique;
3rd department- active speech organs are mobile organs that perform the main work necessary for the formation of sound. These include the tongue, lips, soft palate, small uvula, epiglottis, vocal cords. The vocal cords are two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilage of the larynx and located almost horizontally across it. They are elastic, can be relaxed and tense, can move apart different widths solution;
The first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply a stream of air, the second - to form the voice, the third is a resonator, giving the sound strength and color and thus forming the characteristic sounds of our speech, which arise as a result of the activity of individual active parts of the articulatory apparatus. The latter include the lower jaw, tongue, lips and soft palate.
The lower jaw moves down and up; the soft palate rises and falls, thus closing and opening the passage into the nasal cavity; the tongue and lips can take a wide variety of positions. A change in the position of the speech organs entails the formation of gates and constrictions in various parts of the articulatory apparatus, due to which one or another character of the sound is determined.
The tongue is rich in muscles, making it very mobile: it can lengthen and shorten, become narrow and wide, flat and curved.
The soft palate, or velum, ending in a small uvula, lies at the top of the oral cavity and is a continuation of the hard palate, which begins at the upper teeth with alveoli. The velum palatine has the ability to move down and up and thus separate the pharynx from the nasopharynx. When pronouncing all sounds except m and n, the velum palatine is raised. If for some reason the velum is inactive and is not raised, then the sound is nasal (nasal), since when the velum is lowered, sound waves pass primarily through the nasal cavity.
The lower jaw, due to its mobility, is a very important organ of the articulatory (sound-pronunciation) apparatus, as it contributes to the full development of stressed vowel sounds (a, o, u, e, i, s).
The painful state of individual parts of the articulatory apparatus is reflected in the correct resonance and clarity of pronounced sounds. Therefore, in order to develop the necessary articulation, all organs involved in the formation of speech sounds must work correctly and in concert.
The speech organs are shown in the following figure:
1 - hard palate; 2 - alveoli; 3 - upper lip; 4 - upper teeth; 5 - lower lip; 6 - lower teeth; 7 - front part of the tongue; 8 - middle part of the tongue; 9 - back of the tongue; 10 - root of the tongue; 11 - vocal cords; 12 - soft palate; 13 - tongue; 14 - larynx; 15 - trachea..
Consonants
Vowels
Vowels are sounds that consist primarily of vocal tone. When pronouncing vowels, the position of the tongue, lips and soft palate is such that air passes through the oral cavity without encountering obstacles that could contribute to the generation of noise. Depending on the position of the tongue, German vowels are divided into front vowels (i, e, ä, ö, ü) and back vowels (a, o, u). Vowels are long and short (8 vowel letters make 16 vowel sounds). Their duration is associated with the quality of the syllable they form. In this regard, a distinction is made between open syllables (ending in a vowel or consisting of one vowel) and closed syllables (ending in one or more consonants). A diphthong is the continuous pronunciation of two vowels in one syllable.
| [ə] |
| [ί:] [ı] |
| [y] |
| [ε:] [ε] |
| [ø:] [œ] |
| [a] |
| [υ] |
| [ɔ] |
| [α:] |
Consonants are sounds consisting of voice and (or) noise that is formed in the oral cavity, where a stream of air meets various obstacles. Depending on the participation of the voice, German consonants are divided into voiceless, voiced (plosives and fricatives) and sonorant (sonorous). Affricates mean the continuous pronunciation of two consonants.
The key to correct pronunciation is the ability to properly control your speech organs, i.e. speech apparatus .
The speech apparatus includes:
- respiratory system (das Atmungssystem)
- larynx (der Kehlkopf)
- resonator (das Ansatzrohr) –oral cavity during the formation of sounds
The respiratory system consists of lungs (die Lungen), bronchi (die Bronchien) And trachea (die Lufthröhre), otherwise the windpipe.
The functioning of the respiratory organs is the basis for pronouncing sounds. While breathing exhaled air enters the larynx through the trachea, where its first transformation occurs.
The larynx is the upper part of the trachea and ends epiglottis(der Kehldeckel) which closes the windpipe when eating. However, for the speaking process, the larynx is important because it contains vocal cords (die Stimmbänder).
The vocal cords are two elastic muscles that are attached to the cricoid cartilage by the arytenoid cartilages. Due to their mobility, the vocal cords either move closer to each other or move away from each other. The gap that appears between the vocal cords is the basis for the subsequent pronunciation of sounds. (photocopy). The exhaled air, passing through this gap, touches the edges of the vocal cords, causing them to vibrate. Thus, under the influence of these oscillatory movements, the air begins to “ring”.
From the larynx, a stream of exhaled air enters resonator (das Ansatzrohr), where its final transformation into a particular sound occurs.
The resonator consists of three cavities: oral cavity (die Mundhöhle), pharynx (der Rachen) And nasal cavity (die Nasenhöhle).
The main articulatory organs are located in the oral cavity:
Ø upper lip (die obere Lippe)
Ø lower lip (die untere Lippe)
Ø upper teeth (die oberen Zähne)
Ø lower teeth (die unteren Zähne)
Ø alveoli (die Alveolen)
Ø hard palate (der Hartgaumen)
Ø soft palate (der Weichgaumen)
Ø tongue (das Zäpfchen)
Ø tongue (die Zunge), which is conventionally divided into 4 parts - the tip of the tongue (die Zungenspitze), the anterior back of the tongue (die Vorderzunge), the middle back of the tongue (die Mittelzunge) and the back of the tongue (die Hinterzunge).
The nasal cavity acts as a resonator in the formation of nasal sounds (m, n, ŋ). When pronouncing them, the back of the soft palate - velum (das Gaumensegel), lowers, thereby closing air stream passage into the oral cavity.
Rice. 1: Human speech apparatus
1 - hard palate; 2 - alveoli; 3 - upper lip; 4 - upper teeth; 5 - lower lip; 6 - lower teeth; 7 - front part of the tongue; 8 - middle part of the tongue; 9 - back of the tongue; 10 - root of the tongue; 11 - vocal cords; 12 - soft palate; 13 - tongue; 14 - larynx; 15 - trachea.
3. Articulatory base German language.
With a general, identical method of sound formation, each language has its own characteristic articulatory base. The articulatory base of a language is understood as a set of movements of the speech apparatus characteristic of a given language during the production of sounds.
Here are a few features characteristic of the articulatory base of the German language:
1. The German language is characterized by stronger tension in the muscles of the speech apparatus when pronouncing all sounds, compared to the Russian language.
2. The German language is characterized by a contact position of the tip of the tongue, i.e. When pronouncing all vowels and most consonants, the tip of the tongue touches the lower front teeth.
3. When pronouncing consonant sounds, the soft palate does not completely close the passage of exhaled air into the nasal cavity, which causes a phenomenon such as nasalization, those. the sounds have a slightly nasal tint (Name - to us).
4. German vowels are pronounced with a stable installation of the speech organs in the oral cavity (to O NTR O l - k O NTR O lyrate, K o ntr o lle-k o ntr o llieren).
5. Articulation of German sounds occurs with more energetic movement lower jaw up - down, especially when pronouncing open sounds.
6. The German language has one sound, in the formation of which the tongue is involved - [R].
7. German consonants are not contrasted on the basis of “softness - hardness”.
8. When pronouncing the nasal sound [ŋ], a dense closure is formed between the back of the tongue and the soft palate.
9. In Russian, when combining consonants with vowels front row due to the rise of the front and middle back of the tongue to the hard palate, softening occurs, which is not typical for the German language (winter, silence - sie, Tisch).
4. The concept of phoneme, sound, letter. German alphabet and phonetic transcription.
In order to understand what is the difference between such units as sound, letter and phoneme, it is necessary to determine what is the difference between speech and language.
Speech – specific. It displays objects, actions, sensations in specific situation in the present, past and future.
Language – abstract It is an abstract reflection of reality.
Moreover, if language is the property of all speakers (there are certain grammatical rules, words, sounds in it that any person can learn), then speech individual - each speaker uses a different vocabulary, uses grammatical structures individually, pronounces sounds differently.
That's why sound is a unit of speech, it is specific, and phoneme is a unit of language that is an abstract representation of sound.
Def.3:A phoneme is the minimum unit of language that serves to
folding and distinguishing meaningful units - words.
Phoneme functions:
ü semantically distinctive (significative)
house – volume, die Beeren – die Bären
ü perceptual - to be an object of perception.
In speech, under the influence of adjacent sounds, the same sound can be pronounced with some acoustic differences (water - water - water, Kiel - kühl - backen). However, these changes do not affect the meaning of the word, so they are considered only as variations of one sound. In language this change is called allophone .
Def.4:An allophone is a modification of a phoneme that is
the result of different pronunciation conditions.
Each language has a limited number of phonemes. Allophones of phonemes are represented in writing by letters.
Def.5: Letter – graphic image sounds.
The German alphabet uses 26 pairs of Latin letters(lowercase and uppercase); The umlauted letters ä, ö, ü and the ligature ß (esset) are not included in the alphabet. When sorting alphabetically, ä, ö, ü do not differ from a, o, u, respectively, with the exception of words that differ only in umlaut - in this case the word with the umlaut comes later; ß is equivalent to the combination ss. However, when listing German letters, the signs ä, ö, ü are given not next to the corresponding “pure” letters, but at the end of the list.
A a A F f ef L l ale Q q ku (Ü ü) u-umlaut
(Ä ä) uh (ah-umlaut) G g ge M m Em R r er V v wow
Bb bae H h Ha Nn en Ss es W w ve
C c tse I i And O o O (ß) esset X x X
D d de J j yot (Ö ö) o-umlaut T t te Y y upsilon
E e uh K k ka P p pe U u at Z z tset
Until the beginning of the 20th century. The Gothic font was officially used (in particular, there was a special Gothic handwritten font). Letters in the generally accepted European style are used first unofficially since the 19th century, and after the victory of the November Revolution of 1918 they are introduced officially. Nazi attempts to reintroduce Gothic as an official script were unsuccessful, and it is now used only for decorative purposes.
However, the letter image does not always coincide with the sounds (Schule, Chef, Show). And also, the same letter can represent several sounds (gehen, Tag, ruhig). Therefore, for an adequate acoustic representation of the word, there is a phonetic transcription.
Def. 6: Phonetic transcription is a recording of speech using a phonetic alphabet, which is based on the Latin alphabet.
In transcription, each sound corresponds to only one conventional sign.
Topic 5. Module 6. Peripheral and central sections of the speech apparatus.
Speech as a special means of communication. The main parts of the speech apparatus: peripheral and central. Organization, regulation and control of speech activity. Speech is sensory and motor.
Basic Concepts: Wernicke's center, Broca's center, communicative function of speech, articulatory organs of speech, sensory speech (impressive), motor speech (expressive).
Speech as a special means of communication.
The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs, in which peripheral and central speech apparatuses are distinguished.
The peripheral speech apparatus includes the executive organs of voice production and pronunciation, as well as the sensory and motor nerves related to them. The central speech apparatus is located in the brain and consists of cortical centers, subcortical nodes, pathways and nuclei of the corresponding nerves.
The following presentation is mainly devoted to a description of the normal structure and functions, as well as the most important disorders of the peripheral speech apparatus. As for the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the central speech apparatus, their detailed presentation is the task of a course in neuropathology and partly speech therapy. In this regard, only brief anatomical and physiological information regarding the central mechanisms of speech will be covered here.
Knowledge of anatomical and physiological mechanisms is necessary in order to study the complex mechanisms of speech activity in humans. Information about the structure of the speech sensory system allows for a differentiated approach to the analysis of speech pathology and correctly determines the path of speech correction.
Speech is one of the complex higher mental functions. It is formed on the basis of integrative brain activity. Integrative activity is the unification of all structures involved in the speech act to implement the speech function. The leading function in the formation and implementation of speech activity is performed by the brain. At the level of the brain there are two speech centers: the sensory speech center (Wernicke's center) and the motor speech center (Broca's center). The theory of isolated speech centers arose at the beginning of the 20th century. This theory did not consider complex system interactions of brain structures aimed at the formation and implementation of speech activity. I.P. Pavlov proposed a more complex conceptually new direction for this theory. He proved that the speech function of the cortex is not only complex, but also changeable, that is, capable of restructuring. This theory is called “dynamic localization”
The modern idea of the organization of speech activity is presented in the theory of “dynamic localization of functional systems.” The developers of this theory are P.K. Anokhin, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria and other scientists. They established that the basis of any higher mental function is the interaction not of individual centers, but the interaction of complex functional systems. Functional system is a complex of brain structures and processes occurring in them, united functionally, with the aim of achieving a specific adaptive result.
Speech is the most advanced form of communication compared to other forms of communication. Thanks to speech, not only information is exchanged between people, speech underlies the development of abstract logical thinking. Language is a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The speaker selects the words necessary to express a thought, connects them according to the rules of the grammar of the language and pronounces a phrase, thanks to the friendly interaction of the organs of articulation. The speaker only follows the flow of thought, and not the positions of the organs of articulation. This is ensured by the automation of movements of the organs of articulation. They are carried out without special voluntary efforts and control.
Physiologically, speech is a complex motor act carried out according to the mechanism of conditioned reflex activity. It is formed on the basis of kinesthetic stimuli emanating from the speech muscles, including the muscles of the larynx and respiratory muscles. I.P. Pavlov, speaking about the second signaling system as a word pronounced, audible and visible, pointed out that the physiological basis, or basal component, of the second signaling system is kinesthetic, motor stimuli entering the cerebral cortex from the speech organs.
The sound expressiveness of speech is controlled using an auditory analyzer, the normal activity of which plays a very important role in the development of speech in a child. Speech acquisition occurs in the process of interaction of the child with the environment, in particular with the speech environment, which is a source of imitation for the child. In this case, the child uses not only a sound, but also a visual analyzer, imitating the corresponding movements of the lips, tongue, etc. The kinesthetic stimuli that arise in this case enter the corresponding area of the cerebral cortex. Between three analyzers (motor, auditory and visual), a conditioned reflex connection is established and consolidated, providing further development normal speech activity.
Observations on the development of speech in blind children show that the role of the visual analyzer in the formation of speech is secondary, since speech in such children, although it has some features, develops generally normally and, as a rule, without special outside intervention.
Thus, the development of speech is associated mainly with the activity of the auditory and motor analyzers.
The main parts of the speech apparatus: peripheral and central.
General diagram of the structure of the speech sensory system.
IN general scheme The structure of the speech sensory system includes three sections: peripheral, conductive and central sections.
Peripheral apparatus(executive) includes three sections: respiratory, vocal, articulatory. Its main function is reproduction.
The respiratory section consists of the chest and lungs. Speech activity is closely related to respiratory function. Speech occurs during the exhalation phase. The air stream performs both voice-forming and articulatory functions. At the moment of speech, exhalation is longer than inhalation, since it is during exhalation that the speaking process occurs. At the moment of speech, a person makes fewer respiratory movements than during normal physiological breathing. At the moment of speech, the amount of inhaled and exhaled air increases approximately 3 times. The inhalation during speech becomes shorter and deeper. Exhalation at the moment of pronouncing the phrase is carried out with the participation of the respiratory muscles of the abdominal wall and intercostal muscles. Thanks to this, the depth and duration of exhalation appears, and because of this, a strong air stream is formed, which is necessary for sound pronunciation.
The vocal apparatus includes the larynx and vocal folds. The larynx is a tube that consists of cartilage and soft tissue. The larynx passes from above into the pharynx, and from below into the trachea. At the border of the larynx and pharynx is the epiglottis. It serves as a valve during swallowing movements. The epiglottis descends and prevents food and saliva from entering the larynx.
Men have a larger larynx and longer vocal cords. The length of the vocal cords in men is approximately 20-24 mm, and in women - 18-20 mm. In children before puberty, the length of the vocal cords does not differ between boys and girls. The larynx is small and does not grow evenly at different periods: it grows noticeably at 5-7 years, 12-13 years in girls and 13-15 years in boys. In girls it increases by one third, in boys by two thirds, in boys it is designated as the Adam’s apple.
In young children, the larynx is funnel-shaped; with age, it acquires a cylindrical shape, like in adults. The vocal cords practically cover the larynx, leaving a small gap - the glottis. During normal breathing, the gap takes the shape of an isosceles triangle. During phonation, the vocal cords close. The stream of exhaled air moves them apart somewhat. Due to their elasticity, the vocal cords return to their original position; continued pressure pushes the vocal cords apart again. This mechanism continues while phonation occurs. This process is called vocal cord oscillation. The vibration of the vocal cords occurs in the transverse direction, i.e. inward and outward. When whispering, the vocal cords close almost completely, only in the back there is a gap through which air passes when inhaling.
The articulatory department is formed by articulation organs: tongue, lips, jaws, hard and soft palate, alveoli (see Profile of articulation organs).
Of the listed organs of articulation, the tongue, lips, lower jaw, and soft palate are movable organs of articulation, and all the rest are immovable.
Language - participates in the formation of everything except the labial ones. The organs of articulation, when approaching each other, form slits or closures. As a result of such convergences, phonemes are pronounced.
The loudness and clarity of speech is achieved thanks to resonators. The resonators are located in the extension pipe. The extension tube is formed by the pharynx, oral and nasal cavities. In humans, unlike animals, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity, therefore only the oral and nasal cavities are distinguished. Due to its structure, the extension pipe can change in volume and shape: the oral cavity is expanded, the pharynx is narrowed, the pharynx is expanded, the oral cavity is narrowed. These changes create the phenomenon of resonance. Changing the extension pipe will change the volume and clarity of the sound.
When producing speech sounds, the extension pipe performs two functions: a resonator and a noise vibrator. The function of a sound vibrator is performed by the vocal cords. Noise vibrators also create gaps between the lips, between the tongue and lips, between the tongue and the hard palate, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth. Bows interrupted by a stream of air, as well as slits, generate noise, so they are classified as noise vibrators
Using a noise vibrator, voiceless consonants are formed. And when the tone vibrator is turned on, voiced and sonorant sounds are formed.
The nasal cavity is involved in the formation of sounds: m, n, m`, n`.
It must be emphasized that the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus (respiratory) serves to supply air, the second section (voice) serves to form the voice, and the third (articulatory) - to create the phenomenon of resonance, which ensures the volume and clarity of the sounds of our speech.
So, in order for a word to be pronounced, a program must be implemented. At the first stage, teams are selected at the KGM level to organize speech movements, i.e., articulation programs are formed. At the second stage, articulation programs are implemented in the executive part of the speech motor analyzer, the respiratory, phonatory and resonator systems are connected. Commands and speech movements are carried out with high accuracy, therefore, certain sounds, a system of sounds appear, and oral speech is formed.
Control over the execution of commands and the work of the speech motor analyzer is carried out through kinesthetic sensations and with the help of auditory perception. Kinesthetic control prevents errors and makes corrections before the sound is pronounced. Auditory control is realized at the moment the sound is heard. Thanks to auditory control, a person can correct an error in speech, correct it and pronounce a word or speech utterance correctly.
Wiring department represented by conducting pathways. There are two types of nerve tracts: centripetal tracts (conduct information from the muscles, tendons and ligaments to the central nervous system) and centrifugal tracts (conduct information from the central nervous system to the muscles, tendons and ligaments).
Centripetal (sensitive) nerve pathways begin with proprioceptors and baroreceptors. Proprioceptors are located in muscles, tendons and on the articular surfaces of moving organs of articulation. Baroreceptors are located in the pharynx and are excited by changes in pressure in it. When we speak, proprioceptors and baroreceptors are irritated. The irritation is converted into a nerve impulse and along centripetal pathways the nerve impulse reaches the speech zones of the cerebral cortex.
Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways begin at the level of the cerebral cortex and reach the muscles of the peripheral speech apparatus. All organs of the peripheral speech apparatus are innervated by cranial nerves: trigeminal V, facial VII, glossopharyngeal IX, vagus X, accessory XI, hypoglossal XII.
The trigeminal nerve (V pair of cranial nerves) innervates the muscles of the lower jaw. The facial nerve (VII pair of cranial nerves) innervates the facial muscles of the face, the movement of the orbicularis oris muscle and carries out lip movement, puffing and retraction of the cheeks. The glossopharyngeal (IX pair of cranial nerves) and vagus (X pair of cranial nerves) nerves innervate the muscles of the larynx, vocal cords, pharynx and soft palate. In addition, the vagus nerve takes part in the processes of breathing and regulation of cardiovascular activity, and the glossopharyngeal nerve is the sensory nerve of the tongue. The accessory (XI pair of cranial nerves) nerve innervates the muscles of the neck. The hypoglossal (XII pair of cranial nerves) nerve innervates the tongue, contributes to the implementation of various movements of the tongue, and creates its amplitude.
Central department represented by speech zones at the level of the cerebral cortex. The study of speech zones was started by Broca in 1861. He described disorders of articulatory motor skills with damage to the lower parts of the precentral gyrus of the frontal region. This area was later called Broca's motor speech center, which is responsible for the movement of the organs of articulation.
In 1873, Wernicke described a violation of speech understanding due to damage to the posterior parts of the superior and middle temporal gyri. This area is defined as the sensory speech center, responsible for recognizing native speech sounds by ear and understanding speech.
At the present stage of considering speech activity, it is customary to talk not about motor and sensory speech, but about impressive and expressive speech.
It is believed that for both right-handers and left-handers, the speech center is located in the left hemisphere. This statement was formulated after observations of operated patients. Speech impairments are observed in 70% of right-handers operated on the left hemisphere and in 0.4% of right-handers operated on the right hemisphere. Speech dysfunction is observed in 38% of left-handers operated on the left hemisphere and in 9% of left-handers operated on the right hemisphere.
The development of speech centers in the right hemisphere is possible only in cases where in the early childhood the left-sided speech areas were damaged. The formation of speech centers in the right hemisphere acts as compensation for impaired functions.
Written speech and the reading process are components of speech activity. These centers are located in the parieto-occipital region of the cerebral cortex of the cerebral hemispheres.
The subcortical areas of the cerebral cortex are involved in the formation of speech utterances. The subcortical nuclei of the strio-pallidal system are responsible for the rhythm, tempo, and expressiveness of speech utterances.
It should be noted that the implementation of speech activity is possible only under the condition of the integrative activity of all structural formations of the brain and the processes occurring in them, the interaction of all departments of the implementation of speech function: peripheral, conductive and central.
Anatomical and physiological features of the velopharyngeal apparatus
Palate – delimits the oral cavity, nose and pharynx.
The hard palate is the bone base, the alveolar processes are in front and on the sides, and the soft palate is behind.
The height and configuration of the hard palate affects resonance.
The soft palate is a muscular formation. The front part is motionless, the middle part is actively involved in the formation of speech, the back part is involved in swallowing. As you rise, the soft palate lengthens.
When breathing, the soft palate is lowered and partially covers the opening between the pharynx and the oral cavity.
When swallowing, the soft palate stretches and approaches the back wall of the pharynx and comes into contact, while other muscles contract.
During speech, very rapid muscle contractions are repeated: the soft palate approaches the posterior wall upward and backward.
The closing and opening times of the nasopharynx range from 0.01 sec to 1 sec. The degree of elevation depends on speech fluency and phonetics.
The maximum elevation of the palate is observed when pronouncing the sound -a-, and the minimum when pronouncing the sound -i-.
When blowing, swallowing and whistling, the soft palate rises and closes the nasopharynx.
Relationship between the soft palate and the larynx: a change in the soft palate leads to a change in the vocal cords (tonus of the larynx - raising the soft palate).
The cortical end of the auditory analyzer is located in both temporal lobes, and the cortical section of the motor analyzer is located in the anterior central convolutions of the brain, also in both hemispheres, and the cortical representation of the muscles that provide movement of the speech organs (jaws, lips, tongue, soft palate, larynx) is located in the lower parts of these convolutions.
For normal speech activity, the left (for left-handers - the right) hemisphere of the brain is especially important. In the posterior part of the left superior temporal gyrus is located the auditory speech center, usually called sensory (sensitive) speech center, and in the posterior part of the second and third frontal gyri of the left hemisphere is located motor(motor) speech center(Fig. 40).
Damage or disease of the sensory center of speech leads to disruption of the sound analysis of speech. Arises sensory aphasia, in which it becomes impossible to distinguish by ear the elements of speech (phonemes and
words), and therefore understanding speech, although hearing acuity and the ability to distinguish non-speech sounds remain normal.
Damage or disease of the motor center of speech leads to disruption of the analysis and synthesis of kinesthetic (motor) stimuli that occur when pronouncing speech sounds. Coming motor aphasia, in which it becomes impossible to pronounce words and phrases, although movements of the speech organs not related to speech activity (movements of the tongue and lips, opening and closing the mouth, chewing, swallowing, etc.) are not impaired.
Assignment for independent work: (1 hour)
1. Independent familiarization with the contents of the lecture.
2. Clarification of concepts from the dictionary.
3. Draw a drawing of the lateral side of the left hemisphere and mark the motor and sensory center of speech.
The emergence of speech in humans and the formation of sounds is possible thanks to the speech apparatus. The speech apparatus is a set of coordinated organs that help form the voice, regulate it and form it into meaningful expressions. Thus, the human speech apparatus includes all elements directly involved in the creation of sounds - the articulatory apparatus, including the central nervous system, respiratory organs - lungs and bronchi, throat and larynx, oral and nasal cavities.
The structure of the human speech apparatus, that is, its structure, is divided into two sections - the central and peripheral sections. The central link is the human brain with its synapses and nerves. The central speech apparatus also includes the higher parts of the central nervous system. The peripheral department, also known as the executive department, is a whole community of elements of the body that ensure the formation of voice and speech. Further, according to the structure, the peripheral part of the speech apparatus is divided into three subsections:
Voice formation
In every language on our planet there is a specific number of sounds that create the acoustic image of the language. The sound finds meaning only in the scheme of sentences and helps to distinguish one letters from others. This sound is called a phoneme of the language. All sounds of a language differ in articulatory characteristics, that is, their difference comes from the formation of sounds in the human speech apparatus. And by acoustic characteristics - by differences in sound.
- respiratory, otherwise energetic - includes the lungs, bronchi, trachea and throat;
- voice-forming department, otherwise generator - the larynx along with sound cords and muscles;
- sound-producing, otherwise resonator - the cavity of the oropharynx and nose.
The work of these departments of the speech apparatus in complete symbiosis can only occur through the central control of speech and voice-forming processes. This suggests that the respiratory process, articulatory mechanism and sound formation are completely controlled by the human nervous system. Its impact also extends to peripheral processes:
- the functioning of the respiratory organs regulates the power of the voice;
- the functioning of the oral cavity is responsible for the formation of vowels and consonants and for the difference in the articulatory process during their formation;
- The nose section provides adjustment of the overtones of the sound.
The central speech apparatus occupies a key place in the formation of the voice. The human jaw and lips, palate and supraglottic lobe, pharynx and lungs are all involved in the process. Airflow, leaving the body, going further through the larynx and passing through the mouth and nose, is the source of sound. On its way, the air passes through the vocal cords. If they are relaxed, then the sound is not formed and passes freely. If they are close and tense, the air creates vibration as it passes. The result of this process is sound. And then, with the work of the movable organs of the oral cavity, the direct formation of letters and words occurs.
Structural components of speech
Responsible for speech function:
- The sensory speech center is the perception of speech sounds, based on the sound discrimination system of the language; Wernicke's area in the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for this process.
- The center of motor speech - Broca's area is responsible for it, thanks to it it is possible to reproduce sounds, words and phrases.
In this regard, in clinical psychology there is the concept of impressive speech, in other words, the understanding and presentation of oral and writing. There is also the concept of expressive speech - that which is pronounced out loud accompanied by a certain tempo, rhythm, and emotions.
In the process of speech formation, each person should have a clear understanding of the following subsystems of their native language:
- phonetics (what syllables, sound combinations can be, their correct structure and combination);
- syntax (understanding how exactly the relationships and combinations between words occur);
- vocabulary (knowledge of the vocabulary of the language)
- semantics (the ability to understand the meaning of words long before acquiring pronunciation skills);
- pragmatics (relationships between sign systems and those who use them).
The phonological component of a language means knowledge of the semantic units of the language (phonemes). Physically, speech sounds can be divided into noises (consonants) and tones (vowels). Any language is based on a certain distinctive feature; if you change one of them, the meaning of the word will change dramatically. The main semantic distinguishing features include deafness and sonority, softness and hardness, as well as stress and unstress. It is these features that act as the basis of the phonemes of the language system. Each language has a different number of semantic units, usually from 11 to 141.
The Russian language involves the use of 42 phonemes, in particular, 6 vowels and 36 consonants.
It has been scientifically proven that any healthy infant in the first year of life, he has the ability to reproduce 75 different shortest sound units, in other words, he can master any language. But, more often than not, children initial stages of their development are located in only one language environment, so over time they lose the ability to reproduce sounds that do not belong to their native Russian language.
Diagnosis of problems with the speech apparatus
The assimilation of the norms of the native language occurs by copying what a person hears. And all parents have different attitudes towards speech development problems in their children. Some begin to sound the alarm when a child at the age of two does not use detailed phrases to communicate, while others are more careless and may stubbornly not notice that the child’s speech apparatus is not functioning properly.
The presence of problems largely depends on how well a person’s speech apparatus is formed. It is important that each department involved in the formation of voice functions fully and accurately.
The causes of violations can be many factors, since the structure of the human speech apparatus is very structural complex circuit. But there are only three main reasons:
- incorrect use of speech organs;
- structural disorders of speech organs or tissues;
- problems with the parts of the nervous system that ensure the process of reproducing sounds and voices.
Under delay speech development(ZRR) implies quantitative underdevelopment vocabulary, unformed expressive speech or absence of phrasal speech by 2 years and coherent speech by 3 years in children. If there is a deficiency of vocal functions, communication is limited, the volume received from outside world speech information decreases, which can further lead to serious problems with reading and writing.
Such children need consultation from a pediatric neurologist, pediatric otolaryngologist, speech therapist, and also a psychologist to select the scope of correctional assistance.
Knowledge of the structure of the speech apparatus and its functions will help you pay attention to deviations from the norm in time and increases the chance of a quick and complete correction of the pathology.
