Topic: Vowel sounds and their classifications
Vowels are musical tones formed as a result of the passage of a weak air jet without obstacles with general diffuse tension in the speech apparatus.
TOvowel classification
The basis for the classification of vowel sounds is
1) position of the tongue (i.e., the place and degree of elevation of the tongue);
2) participation or non-participation of the lips;
3) participation or non-participation of the velum palatine;
4) duration of sound, or longitude;
5) completeness of articulation and some etc.
When forming vowels, the most active organ of speech is the tongue, which makes movements in two directions - horizontal, moving forward or backward, and vertical, rising or falling.
These directions in the movement of the tongue are interconnected: moving forward or moving back, the tongue simultaneously rises to a greater or lesser extent towards the hard palate. However, for a clearer description of vowels, it is advisable to take into account each direction of tongue movement separately.
1) According to the position of the tongue:
A) according to the place where the tongue rises (in a row), vowels are distinguished
a) front,
b) average and
c) back row.
When forming vowels front row the entire body of the tongue moves forward, the tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to one degree or another towards the hard palate. Such vowels include Russians [i] [e], German [ ü ] [ ü ber]; [ ö ][ ö ffnen].
When forming vowels middle row the body of the tongue is somewhat pushed back, and its entire back is raised high to the palate. At the same time, the tip of the tongue also rises slightly. This is how Russian vowels are formed [s] And [ A]:in the word [ garden].
When pronouncing vowels back row the entire body of the tongue moves back, the back of the back rises towards the soft palate, and the tip of the tongue lowers and moves somewhat away from the lower teeth. Back vowels are Russian [ at] And [ O], German [ A:] in a word [ kA:m] “came.”
and], [s] [y] and you will feel the difference between the front, middle and back vowels.
B) according to the degree of tongue elevation , or by the degree of mouth opening (by rise) they distinguish
A) high vowels, or closed, narrow vowels: [ and], [s], [y];
b) mid-rise vowels - [uh], [o];
c) lower vowels, or open, wide vowels - [A].
Say the sounds [ and], [e], [a]. Notice how the mouth gradually opens wider and wider, and the lower jaw drops. If we pronounce sounds in reverse order, the mouth will gradually close, and the lower jaw will approach upper lip. At the same time, feel how the tongue rises to varying degrees in one part or another towards the palate.
Table 1. Classification of Russian vowels
|
rise | Front | Average | Rear |
Upper | |||
Average | |||
Lower |
Note: For general tables of vowels according to Swift and according to the IPA (International Phonetic Association), see pages 185 and 188-189 of the textbook on introduction to linguistics (M., 2002).
3) According to the position of the lips, all vowels are divided into two groups:
A) labialized, or rounded. When formed, their lips are pulled forward and rounded: [o], [y], German: [ ü ], [ ö ];
b) non-labialized, or unrounded. When formed, their lips do not stretch forward and are not rounded: [ and], [e], [a].
4) According to the position of the soft palate, or velum:
A) nasalized, or nasal, during the formation of which the palatine curtain is lowered, i.e., is in a neutral position, and the passage into the nasal cavity is open. Nasal vowels are found in some modern Romance (eg French, Portuguese) and Slavic (Polish) languages; in ancient times everything Slavic languages had nasal vowels. In modern Russian, nasal vowels are possible only with deformation of the nasopharynx.
b) clean(oral, non-nasal, or non-nasal). When pure vowels are formed, the velum palatine is raised and pressed against the back wall of the pharynx, the passage into the nasal cavity is closed, and it does not serve as an additional resonator. Most vowels in the world's languages are pure.
5) According to duration or longitude, vowels are:
A) long And
b) brief.
In Russian, stressed vowels are usually longer. In German, English, Czech, longitude and shortness are a very important differential feature of vowels: English: it [ it], eat [ i: t]; German: im [ im], ihm [ i: m].
6) according to the complexity of articulation (or composition), vowels are divided into
A) monophthongs And
b) polyphthongs ì diphthongs [ ai], [ au]: [ n ai t] night; [ d a u n] down
î triphthongs fire
Monophthongs are characterized by articulatory and acoustic homogeneity; When articulating a vowel, the speech organs do not change their position.
A diphthong is a complex sound, the result of combining two, and sometimes three vowels in one syllable. A diphthong is a sound produced with a single articulatory movement; diphthongs have a longer duration than monophthongs. Diphthongs are available in English, German, and French.
A triphthong is a combination of three vowels within one syllable.
Diphthongs can be descending And ascending. U downstream of diphthongs, the first element is syllabic; the tension of the utterance is strong at first, then weakens; at rising In diphthongs, the second vowel is the syllable-forming vowel; The tension of the utterance is weak at first, then increases.
There are diphthongs true And false. The true ones diphthongs - both constituent elements equal rights, both are clearly pronounced, but do not break up into two syllables. U false diphthongs only one element is syllabic : May
Characteristics of vowels
[i] - vowel, stressed, front row, upper rise, non-labialized.
Vowels are purely tonal sounds. Having arisen in the larynx as a result of vibration of the vocal cords, a musical rush, the voice acquires a special timbre in the supraglottic cavities. Mouth and throat -
These are the resonators in which differences between vowels are formed. These differences are determined by the volume and shape of the resonating cavities, which can change as a result of movements of the lips, tongue and lower jaw. Each vowel is pronounced in a special position of the speech organs, characteristic only of this sound.
The classification of vowel sounds is based on three characteristics: the participation of the lips; the degree of vertical elevation of the tongue in relation to the palate; the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or backward horizontally.
- 1. Based on the participation of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded (or labialized) and unglobbed (or unlabialized). When rounded vowels are formed, the lips come closer, rounded and protrude forward, reducing the exit opening and lengthening the oral resonator. The degree of rounding can be different: less at [o], greater at [y]. The vowels [a|, [e], [i], [s] are destroyed.
- 2. According to the degree of vertical elevation of the tongue in relation to
to the palate, the vowels of the upper rise are distinguished: [and],
[s], [y]; middle rise: [e], [o]; lower lift: [a]. When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. In this case, the lower jaw usually moves slightly away from the upper, creating a narrow mouth opening; therefore, high vowels are also called narrow m and. When articulating lower vowels, the lower jaw is usually lowered to its lowest position, creating a wide mouth opening; therefore, low vowels are also called wide.
3. According to the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or backward horizontally, the vowels of the front row are distinguished: [i], [e]; middle row: [s], [a]; back row: [y], [o]. When articulating front, middle or back vowels, the tongue is concentrated in the front, middle or back of the mouth, respectively. The shape of the tongue can be different. When forming front vowels, the front part of the tongue rises towards the front of the palate. When forming back vowels, the back of the tongue rises towards the back of the palate. And when forming middle vowels, the tongue either rises with the middle part to the middle part of the palate, as sometimes happens when pronouncing [s], or lies flat, as when pronouncing [a].
But the division into three rises and three rows does not reflect the full richness of vowel sounds. So, in addition to [and], there is also a sound pronounced with a slightly greater openness of the mouth and a slightly lower rise of the tongue. This sound is called "[and] open"; in a more accurate transcription it is [and e], i.e. "[and], prone to [e]." There is “[e] closed” - a sound that differs from [e] by a slightly greater closedness of the mouth and a slightly higher rise of the tongue; in a more accurate transcription it is [e and] or [e]. Thus, open and closed vowels are “shades” of sounds, pronounced with a slightly greater openness/closeness of the mouth and a slightly smaller/greater lift of the tongue.
Shades of sounds can be considered as special sounds. Then the table of vowels should be more detailed (although, of course, not all Russian vowels are shown in it):
The vowel [o] is pronounced, for example, in the words po]khod, gore]d. It can be pronounced in isolation if you form a continuous series of sounds from [s] to [a] and stop in the middle.
The vowels [a], [e], [o], [u] are advanced and upward compared to [a], [e], [o], [u]. They are pronounced between soft consonants: five[p"at"], sing[Pat"], aunt[t"bt"e], tulle[t "ul"].
The vowel [e] is pronounced under stress after a hard consonant: m[er, sh[est.(To designate this vowel, the sign [„] is used with a letter - a sign of the International Phonetic Alphabet, indicating that the vowel is moved back.)
The vowels [and e], [s e], m are only in an unstressed position: [and e]hide, d[s °]shy, e[a uh ]yes. For some speakers, instead of [a°], the sound is [d], an unrounded vowel, but the position of the tongue is intermediate between [a] and [o].
Language is truly a wonderful gift to humanity. This perfect instrument of communication has a complex structure and is a system. Traditionally, when starting to study a language, one turns to phonetics - a branch of the science of language, the subject of which is the sounds of speech, and more specifically, the classification of vowels and
Phonetics
Phonetics is designed to study speech sounds. It occupies a special position, which is determined by the fact that the subject of its study is language units of a material nature. Sounding speech is formed by the human speech organs and air vibrations. The perception of sounding speech occurs through the human hearing organs.
Phonetics deals with the most minimal unit of language - the sound of speech. There are an infinite number of such sounds. After all, everyone pronounces them in their own way. But among this variety we can identify sounds that are pronounced in the same way. The method of formation is the basis for the classification of sounds.
The main thing is the classification of vowels and consonants. Articulation and speech are or provide speech with melodiousness. Consonants are noise.
Consonant sounds are produced when air overcomes obstacles in its path. They consist of voice and noise or only noise. Different ways formation and overcoming these obstacles make it possible to distinguish consonant sounds from each other. The classification of vowel/consonant sounds in the Russian language is based on these differences. We will consider its principles further.
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the articulatory and acoustic features of speech sounds. Articulatory phonetics deals with the study of the anatomical and physiological nature of sound and the mechanisms of its production. Acoustic phonetics studies sound as oscillatory movements carried out by its passage through the vocal cords and oral cavity. The subjects of study of acoustic phonetics are its pitch, strength, longitude and timbre.
Acoustic classification of vowel sounds
Introduction to phonetics usually begins with the study of vowel sounds. Let us not deviate from traditions that are due to their greater significance. They are syllabic. Consonants are adjacent to vowels.
What classification of vowels and consonants will be the subject of our attention for the study of vowel sounds in the first place?
First, let's look at the acoustic features of vowels:
- all these sounds are formed using the tone of the voice;
- characterized by stress and unstress, that is, they can be weak and strong;
- weak vowels are short in sound and do not require straining the vocal cords when pronouncing them;
- Strong vowels are distinguished by longer pronunciation and with tension in the vocal cords.
The tone of vowel sounds is not a meaningful characteristic. Can only transmit emotional state speaker or grammatical meaning. For example, in interrogative sentence The vowel in the word that carries the greatest semantic load is pronounced in a higher tone.
Weak and short sounds are called unstressed in Russian. Strong and long are percussive. Stress is unfixed in our language and most often performs a grammatical function: house (singular), houses (plural). Sometimes the emphasis is meaningful: lock (structure), lock (device for locking a door).
Classification of vowel sounds according to articulatory features. Rounded/unrounded vowels
The articulatory classification of vowel sounds is much broader than the acoustic one. In addition to the voice, they are formed by the lips, tongue and lower jaw. Sound is formed in a certain way and is characterized by the following characteristics:
- participation of lips in its formation;
- degree of tongue elevation;
- horizontal movement of the tongue in the oral cavity.
Vowels can be formed by stretching the lips, then they are called rounded (labialized). If the lips are not involved in the formation of a vowel, then it is called unrounded (non-labialized).
Rounded vowels are formed when the lips are protruded forward and close to each other. The air passes through a narrow space formed by the lips folded into a tube, and the oral resonator lengthens. The degree of rounding varies: the vowel [o] has less, and the vowel [u] is characterized by a greater degree of rounding. The remaining vowels are unrounded, that is, non-labialized.
Vowels by the degree of vertical movement of the tongue, that is, by rise
According to the way the tongue rises to the palate, vowel sounds are:
The lower the rise, the wider the mouth opens and the lower the jaw drops.
Vowels by horizontal tongue movement
Vowels, based on the horizontal movement of the tongue in the mouth, are also divided into three groups:
- The front row is the sounds [i], [e]. When they are formed, the front part of the tongue must be raised to the front of the palate.
- The middle row is the sounds [a], [s]. When they are formed, the middle part of the tongue rises to the middle part of the palate.
- Back row - [y], [o]. When they are formed, the back of the tongue rises towards the back of the palate.
In a generalized form, the classification of vowel sounds is reflected in the vowel triangle. You can see it in the picture below.
Shades of vowel sounds
Division by row and rise does not in any way correspond to the entire richness and variety of vowels. In general, the classification of vowel/consonant sounds in the Russian language is much broader than given in textbooks school curriculum. Both the first and second may have pronunciation options. It depends on the position in which they stand.
In addition to the sound [and] there is one that is pronounced with a slightly greater openness of the mouth and a lower rise of the tongue than [and]. This sound has a name [and] is open. In transcription it is designated [and e]. Example: forests [l "i e sa"].
The sound [s e] is not so open. For example, in the word “iron”, which is pronounced [zhy e l"e"zny].
In a weak position, before a stressed syllable, instead of the sounds [a], [o], a non-labialized sound is pronounced. According to the position of the tongue, it occupies a place between [a] and [o], for example: grass [tr/\va"], fields [p/\l"a"].
There are also reduced vowels, they are also called weakened sounds. These are [ъ] and [ь]. [ъ] is the sound of the middle row of the middle-low rise. [b] - this sound is the sound of the front row of the middle-low rise. Examples: steam locomotive [pар/\в"с], water [въд" и е no"й]. The weakening of their pronunciation is due to the distance of these vowels from the stress.
The sounds [and е], [ы е], , [ъ], [ь] occur only in the unaccented position.
Dependence of vowel sounds on the softness of consonants
Changes in the pronunciation of vowels depending on soft (palatalized) consonants are considered by phonetics. The classification of vowel sounds depending on such proximity can be presented as follows:
- The vowels ["a", "e", ["o", ["u] move slightly upward and forward at the beginning of pronunciation.
- If these vowels stand between soft consonants, changes in articulation persist throughout the entire pronunciation of the sound: son-in-law [z"a"t", aunt [t"o"t"a], tulle [t"u"l"].
Types of stressed vowels
There are six positions in our language, which are represented by different types stressed vowels. All of them are presented in the table below.
Types of unstressed vowels
The classification of unstressed vowels depends on the proximity or distance from the stress and preposition or postposition in relation to it:
- The vowels [i], [ы], [у], standing in the pre-stressed syllable, are slightly weakened in their articulation, but do not change radically.
- If [y] comes after hissing and hard ones before soft ones, then it moves slightly up and forward at the end of the sound, for example in the word zh[y˙]vet.
- The sound [y] at the very beginning of the word, standing before soft consonants and after hard back-lingual or hissing ones, also slightly moves up and forward at the end of pronunciation. For example: [u˙]iron, zh[ar˙]rit.
- The vowel [u], if it comes after a soft consonant and before a hard consonant, moves up and forward at the beginning of pronunciation. For example: [l’˙u]bove.
- If [y] is between soft consonants, it moves up and forward throughout the entire time of pronunciation: [l’˙u˙]beat.
- Vowels [a], [o], if they come after back-lingual ones at the beginning of a word, hard and [ts], are pronounced as [ㆄ], this vowel is formed in the middle row, is mid-low in its rise, it is non-labialized.
- Vowels [a], [o], [e], if they come after soft consonants, [ch], [j] are pronounced as [ie], which is characterized as a non-labialized vowel, intermediate between [i] and [e], according to in the row of formation it is anterior, in ascent it is middle-upper.
- The vowels [e], [o], which come after [sh], [z], are pronounced as [ые], it is the sound of the non-front row, it is no longer ы and not e, such a sound can be heard, for example, in the word " live."
- The vowel [a] after [sh], [zh] is pronounced [ㆄ]. This sound can be heard in the word "sh[ㆄ]lit".
- [i], [ы], [у] weaken their articulation in the third and second pre-stressed syllables, but do not change their character of pronunciation.
- The vowel [u], if it is in the second and third pre-stressed syllables, before palatalized consonants and behind hard sounds, does not differ from the sound pronounced in the pre-stressed syllable, this also applies to the vowels [s] and [and].
- The vowels [a], [o], [e] in the third and second pre-stressed syllables, at the very beginning of the word, change according to the type of the syllable before the stress - in place of the stressed vowels [a], [o] is pronounced [ㆄ], and in place of [e] it is pronounced [ee].
Changes in vowel stressed sounds in overstressed syllables are reflected in the table below.
Conclusion
To summarize, we can conclude: the classification of vowel sounds is influenced by the position of the tongue. Moving in the mouth, it creates different conditions to produce sounds. They are perceived as different vowels.
VOWEL SOUNDS
Vowels, as already noted, are purely tonal sounds, without any overtone of noise. The source of sound when pronouncing vowels is the vibrations of the vocal cords. Passing through the pharynx or nasal cavity, the voice acquires a special timbre. It is in the supraglottic cavities that differences between vowel sounds arise. These differences are due to changes in the volume and shape of the resonator cavities. The speaker achieves such transformations by moving the lips, tongue and movable lower jaw.
The classification of vowels is based on three characteristics:
1) lip involvement;
2) the degree of vertical elevation of the tongue in relation to the palate;
3) the degree to which the tongue moves forward or backward horizontally.
In the Russian literary language there are only six vowel sounds that can be pronounced in isolation, outside a word or syllable: [a], [o], [u], [e], [y], [i].
By the participation of the lips vowels are divided into rounded (or labialized - from lat. labium “lip”) and unrounded (non-labialized). Labialized sounds include the sounds [o] and [u], and the degree of labialization [u] is higher. The remaining vowels are non-labialized.
According to the degree of tongue elevation distinguish vowels top lift[i], [s], [y], during the formation of which the tongue occupies the uppermost position; vowels medium rise[e], [o], during the formation of which the tongue almost does not move from its original position, and the vowel lower rise[a], during the formation of which the tongue and lower jaw occupy an extremely lower position.
By degree of language advancement forward or backward movements highlight vowels front row[i], [e], during the formation of which the tongue moves forward, its front part rises; vowels middle row[s], [a], during the formation of which the tongue moves forward slightly, is raised by the middle part when [s] is formed, or lies flat when [a] is formed; back vowels - [o] and [u] - are formed by raising the back of the tongue to the back palate.
In its simplest form, the table of Russian vowels is a triangle.
|
Row rise |
front |
average |
rear |
|
upper |
And |
s |
at |
|
average |
uh |
O |
|
|
lower |
A |
There are other, more complex patterns, for example, trapezoidal vowels (see L.L. Kasatkin. Modern Russian language. Phonetics)
However, in the flow of speech, much more vowel sounds stand out - 4-5 times more than those placed in our table. In this case, the quality of vowels depends mainly on two factors: the position of the vowel in relation to the stressed syllable and the hardness/softness of neighboring consonants.
Let us denote [t] - any hard consonant;
Any soft consonant;
[a] - any vowel of the phonetic triangle;
Under stressThe quality of the vowel sound is determined by:
1. In syllables like [a], , the quality of the vowel does not change: [o]-[os], [nose], [u]-[u]ho, [spirit].
2. In syllables of the type under the influence of the preceding soft consonant, the vowel at the beginning of articulation is pronounced with a higher rise and a closed mouth: [m’ ۠ al], [l’ ۠ ukl<], [с ’ ۠ ol], [b’ ۠ il], [p’ ۠ el].
H. In syllables like - under the influence of the subsequent soft consonant, the same changes occur at the end of the vowel articulation: [with ۠ l’ ], [ru ۠۠ l’ ], [drank’], [la ۠ n’], [she ۠ one hundred ۠ ]li, [y ۠ ]ley, [et’ ۠ And].
4. - between two soft consonants, the described vowel articulation is maintained throughout the entire sound: [l’ ۠ O ۠ n’ ], [m’ ۠ A ۠۠ T’ ], [l’ ۠ at ۠ b’ it], [w’ ۠ el’ ].
In unstressed positions The quality of vowels depends on:
A) from the place of the sound in relation to the stress;
b) from the position at the beginning/not at the beginning of the word;
c) on the quality of neighboring consonants, especially the preceding one.
Unstressed vowels are different from stressed vowels quantitatively and qualitatively.
Quality the differences are differences in timbre. Differences quantitative are that, that unstressed vowels are usually shorter than stressed vowels and are pronounced with less force. In this regard, stressed vowels are called fully formed vowels, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels.
There is also a difference between unstressed vowels, which is due to their place in relation to stress and position in the syllable. A. A. Potebnya proposed a formula that conditionally estimates the strength of stressed and unstressed syllables in units. The strength of a stressed vowel corresponds to 3 units, the vowel of the first pre-stressed syllable is 2, and the strength of other unstressed syllables is 1: mess[b’ and E spa ur’ adjk] 1-2-3-1; retraining[p’ and E r’ and E padga b tofk)] - 1-1-1-2-3-1; compelled[forced’ and e ny ъ j ] - 3-1-1-1.
The strength of an unstressed vowel also depends on the following conditions. The uncovered syllable is equal to the first prestressed one: attack - 2-1-2-3; vice versa[nya ba ba mouth] - 1-2-2-3; stork [ai E st] - 3-2. The strength of the overstressed final open syllable fluctuates; it can be equal to 1 or 2 units: cap[hat)] 3-1 and [hat] - 3-2. Unstressed vowels, valued at 2 units, are reduced 1st degree, valued at 1 unit - reduced 2nd degree.
TO reduced 1st degree include vowels [e i], [i e], [y ъ], [ Λ], [а ъ ]. In the speech stream, these vowels occur in the absolute unstressed beginning of a word, in an open unstressed syllable within a word, in the 1st pre-stressed syllable.
[e and]- the sound is average between [e] and [i], closer to [e]; quite rare, since it is characteristic of the older orthoepic literary norm (the so-called “ekanya”): v[e and ]sna, r[e and ]dy, b[e and ]ret. However, modern literary language is characterized by “hiccups” - the pronunciation [and uh]- a sound close to [i]: v[i e ]sleep, r[i e ]dy, b[i e ]ret. Therefore, in transcription, one sign is often used - [and e] - to designate the front vowel of the upper middle rise, pronounced at the absolute unstressed beginning of the word, in an open unstressed syllable in the middle of the word and in the 1st pre-stressed syllable: [and E slope’ ] - search, [p'i E skΛv’ ik] – search engine, [and E tash] - floor, [s "and E zhu] - sitting, [With’ and E d’ eju] - I'm turning gray, [p"and E so] - nickel.
In the position after the hard consonant in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, the sound appears[y ъ]– shortened [s], sound of the middle row of the upper-middle rise: [py b l’ it] - dusty, [tsy b p’ e j ] - chains, [shy b hundred j ] – sixth. This sound is also found in the 2nd pre-stressed and post-stressed syllables: cheese maker- [sy b rΛ var], soap maker- [we lΛ var], ears- [ears b], skis- [skis b].
Vowels [Λ] and [a ъ] close enough. Both are of medium-low rise, but [a b]– middle row, sound closer to [a], a [ Λ] – non-labialized mid-back vowel, middle between [o] and [a], closer to [a]. Since the difference between them is small, one sign is used in transcriptions; we traditionally use the sign [ Λ]: [ Λrl’ iny b j] - eagle, [ Λbr’ and E kos] – apricot,[VΛr’ it’ ] - cook, [soundΛn’ it’ ] – call[къΛp’ and E r Λt’ if] - cooperative. As we can see, this vowel occurs in the same positions: at the absolute unstressed beginning of a word, in an overt unstressed syllable in the middle of a word, and in the 1st pre-stressed syllable after a hard consonant. ’
To reduced 2 -th degree include vowels[ъ] And [b]. They are close to each other, so that in some transcription systems the sign is abandoned [b] and use one schwa sign: [ ә] after hard consonants and [ ۠ ˙ ә] after soft ones. However, in the textbook for grade 2 by V.V. Repkin “Russian Language” it is [ъ] and [ь] that are used. These sounds appear in all other unstressed syllables. Sound [ъ] middle between [ы] and [а], one of the most common sounds of the literary language: [пррΛvos ] - locomotive, [sluśshi] – huts, [vud’ and E but j ] – water, [To blood ] - cow. Sound[b] more anterior, appears after soft consonants: [n’ ьр’ and E in’ ol ] - translated, [b’ ьр’ and E hundred ] - birch bark, [n’ ьр Λг’ And] - pies, [ToΛrov’ b] - cow, [l’ ehch’ b]- easier, [T’ bj lo ] - hard. Qualitative differences between stressed and unstressed vowels are due to the fact that unstressed vowels are articulated less energetically than stressed ones. The tongue takes a position closer to the neutral one occupied by the tongue during a speech pause. In unstressed positions there is only sound [y], as a rule, is not replaced by a qualitatively different sound: [ear’ ], [dry’ j ], [p O ’ l’ at ], however, one can observe such an exchange in some word forms. For example, in the post-accent position after in endings: [with’ And’ n’ ьju] - blue, [V’ and E h’ uh’ rn’ ьju] - evening.
Taking into account sounds in unstressed positions and in positions between soft consonants, the table of Russian vowels can be presented as follows:
|
rise |
Row |
||||
|
front |
Anterior-middle |
Mid-posterior |
|||
|
And |
ÿ |
s |
at |
||
|
upper middle |
and E e I ۠ ˙e ۠ ˙ |
ö |
ы ъ |
||
|
uh |
b |
ъ |
O |
||
|
middle-lower |
ä |
a b |
|||
|
A |
|||||
Of course, this table is incomplete; there are other, more accurate (and simpler) classifications of vowel sounds.
Other possible classification schemes for Russian vowels include the International Phonetic Association quadrangle. It conventionally depicts the profile of the oral cavity and tongue movements.Vowels These are purely tonal sounds. They arise in the larynx as a result of vibration of the vocal cords. The main role in the formation of vowel sounds is played by the movements of the lips and tongue.
In accordance with this, depending on the movement of the lips and tongue, vowel sounds are divided into three characteristics:
1) at the place where the tongue rises (horizontal movement of the tongue);
2) by the degree of tongue elevation (vertical movement of the tongue);
3) by the participation of the lips.
Where the tongue rises vowel sounds are divided into:
Front vowels (when they are formed, the front part of the back of the tongue rises towards the hard palate): [i], [e];
Middle vowels (the middle part of the back of the tongue moves towards the palate): [ы], [а];
Back vowels (the back of the tongue moves towards the soft palate): [u], [o].
According to the degree of tongue elevation vowel sounds are divided into:
Vowels of the upper rise (the tongue is raised to the greatest extent): [i], [s], [u];
Vowels of medium rise (the tongue is vertically in the middle position): [e], [o];
Low vowels (tongue lowered as much as possible): [a].
By the participation of the lips In the formation of sounds, vowels are divided into:
Labialized (from Latin labium - lip), that is, rounded: [y], [o]. When they are formed, the lips come closer, rounded and stretched forward;
Non-labialized, that is, unrounded: [a], [i], [e], [s]. When they form, the lips are stretched.
The classification of vowels of complete formation can be presented in the following table:
| rise | row | ||
| front | average | rear | |
| To the top | [And] | [s] | [y] |
| C average | [e] | [O] | |
| N lower | [a [a] |
In addition to full vowels (stressed), the Russian language has reduced vowels that are pronounced in unstressed syllables.
[ ٨] – vowel, mid-back, mid-low, unrounded, short.
[and uh] – vowel, front row, mid-upper rise, unrounded, short.
[s uh] – vowel, mid-front, mid-upper, unrounded, short.
[ъ]– vowel, middle row, middle rise, unrounded, super short.
[b]– vowel, front row, upper-mid rise, unrounded, super short.
Classification of consonants
The formation and classification of consonants is much more complex than vowels.
Based on the acoustic-physiological properties, consonant sounds differ according to 4 characteristics:
1) on the participation of tone and noise in the formation of consonants;
2) at the place of noise generation;
3) by the method of noise generation;
4) by hardness - softness.
I. The quality of consonants depends on the functioning of the vocal cords, i.e. from the participation of tone and noise in the formation of consonant sounds.
By the participation of tone and noise Consonant sounds are divided into sonorant and noisy.
Sonorous sounds are formed with the participation of tone and noise, but tone predominates. Despite the obstacles, the passage of the air stream remains quite wide: [l] - [l’], [p] - [p’], [m] - [m’], [j].
Noisy consonants are divided into: noisy voiced and noisy voiceless.
In the formation of noisy voiced consonants, noise and voice are involved, but noise predominates: [b] - [b'], [v] - [v'], [g] - [g'], [d] - [d'], [z] - [z'], [z] - [z'] - long.
When noisy voiceless consonants are formed, the tone is not involved at all, since the vocal cords are spread apart and are not vibrated by the air stream. Sounds are created only with the help of noise that is formed in the oral cavity when obstacles are overcome: [k] - [k'], [p] - [p'], [s] - [s'], [t] - [t '], [f] - [f'], [x] - [x'], [ts], [h], [w] - [w'] – long.
Most consonants form pairs based on voicedness and voicelessness. Unpaired ones include:
1) sonorant sounds: [l] - [l’], [r] - [r’], [m] - [m’], [j];
2) voiceless sounds: [h], [ts], [x] - [x’].
II. All consonant sounds have a specific place of noise formation, depending on which active and passive organs of speech form an obstacle.
By place of education Consonant sounds are divided into: labial and lingual.
Lip sounds are divided into labiolabial and labiodental.
When labial sounds are formed, the upper and lower lips close:
[b] - [b’], [p] - [p’], [m] - [m’].
When labiodental sounds are formed, the lower lip approaches the upper teeth: [v] - [v’], [f] - [f’].
All other sounds are linguistic.
III. The quality of the consonant depends on the nature of the obstruction, which can be different.
Depending on how obstacles in the oral cavity are overcome, all consonants according to the method of noise generation are divided into fricatives (fricatives) and stops.
During education fricative consonants the organs of speech are only getting closer. The air stream passes through the gap, as if rubbing against its edges, and thereby creates noise. These include: [v] - [v'], [zh] - [zh'] - long, [z] - [z'], [j], [s] - [s'], [f] - [f'], [x] - [x'], [w] - [w'] - long.
All other sounds are classified as stop sounds.
During education stop consonants the organs of speech close.
IV. Consonant sounds vary according to hardness - softness. Hard and soft consonants are characterized by their articulation.
When forming hard consonants, the tongue is concentrated in the back of the mouth, and when forming soft consonants, it is concentrated in the front.
Most consonants form pairs according to hardness - softness: [b] - [b’], [v] - [v’], [g] - [g’], etc.
Unpaired consonants include:
1) only hard ones: [zh], [ts], [w];
2) only soft: [j],[zh’] - long , [h], [sh’] – long.
Syllable.
In pronunciation, words are divided into syllables. There are different points of view on determining the essence of a syllable.
In modern linguistics, the sonorant theory of the syllable, based on acoustic criteria, is widely recognized. In relation to the Russian language, it was developed by R.I. Avanesov. A syllable is a wave of sonority (sonority). A syllable groups sounds with varying degrees of sonority.
The most sonorous sound in a syllable is called the syllabic sound, which is usually a vowel. A syllable can consist of one vowel sound: [ ٨/kno], [ at/zhjs].
Syllables are distinguished by their final and initial sounds: open and closed, covered and uncovered.
Open syllables end with vowels, closed syllables - consonant sounds. Covered syllables begin with consonants, uncovered- from vowel sounds.
For example: [stu/d'ent]
[stu]- open, covered, [d'ent]- closed, covered.
The division of words into syllables is subject to the law of ascending sonority, according to which sounds in a syllable are arranged from less sonorous to more sonorous.
Vowels have 4 sonority units, sonorant consonants have 3, noisy voiced sounds have 2, noisy voiceless ones have 1.
It has been experimentally proven that the nature of syllable division in Russian speech is determined by the desire to form open syllables, that is, the border between syllables passes after the vowel: [To٨ /pna], [sp٨ /rtak].
Closed syllables in Russian are distinguished in the following cases:
If the word ends in a consonant: [to T] ;
If the consonant [j] comes before another consonant: [V٨ j/n A].
The laws of syllable division in oral speech should not be confused with the rules of hyphenation of words in writing.
Accent
In a broad sense, stress is the highlighting of any phonetic unit in oral speech by phonetic means.
There are verbal, phrasal, and logical stress.
At verbal stress in a phonetic word emphasizes one stressed syllable due to greater tension in the articulatory apparatus and, as a result, greater strength and duration of the stressed syllable. Therefore, Russian stress is called force and stressed vowels, compared to unstressed vowels, are distinguished by greater duration and tension.
Stress in Russian is one of the signs of an independent word. Function words are most often unstressed, except in cases where the stress moves from an independent word to a function word.
A segment of spoken speech that has one stress forms a phonetic word.
An unstressed word adjacent to a subsequent stressed word is called proclitic.
For example: on semi, Not saw.
An unstressed word adjacent to a previous stressed word is called enclitic.
For example: on floor, Not was, the same.
Accent in Russian miscellaneous(free), i.e. it is not assigned to any strictly defined place in the word. Any syllable can be stressed.
For example: the lecture is readable, interesting.
In some words the emphasis may be mobile, in others - motionless, strictly fixed, i.e. during inflection and word formation it either moves from one syllable to another or is assigned to one syllable.
For example: head-heads-heads; comrade-comrades-comradely.
Some words, in addition to the main one, have additional, collateral the stress, which is usually in the first place, and the main one in the second.
For example: dr e extra-Russian, p e college, g O Stelecenter, p O Sleoktyabrsky, p O stfactum.
Phrase stress- this is the stress that falls on a syllable in a phrase that has a large impact force.
For example: The cloud has become overthrown A there is.
Logical stress- this is an emphasis that highlights in a phrase the word that is considered the most important by the speaker. It is always associated with an existing or implied opposition.
For example: I study at the institute.
(not you) (not working) (not at school)
