Speech apparatus - this is the totality and interaction of human organs necessary for the production of speech. It consists of two sections: central and peripheral. The central section is the brain with its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways and nuclei of the corresponding nerves. The peripheral department is the entire set of executive organs of speech, including bones, cartilage, muscles and ligaments, as well as peripheral sensory and motor nerves, with the help of which the work of these organs is controlled.
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three main sections that act together.
1st department- respiratory organs, since all speech sounds are formed only during exhalation. These are the lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm, intercostal muscles. The lungs rest on the diaphragm, an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, is dome-shaped. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the chest increases and inhalation occurs; when they relax, exhalation occurs;
2nd department- passive speech organs are immobile organs that serve as a fulcrum for active organs. These are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx. They have the greatest influence on speech technique;
3rd department- active speech organs are mobile organs that perform the main work necessary for the formation of sound. These include the tongue, lips, soft palate, small uvula, epiglottis, vocal cords. The vocal cords are two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilage of the larynx and located almost horizontally across it. They are elastic, can be relaxed and tense, can move apart different widths solution;
The first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply a stream of air, the second - to form the voice, the third is a resonator, giving the sound strength and color and thus forming the characteristic sounds of our speech, which arise as a result of the activity of individual active parts of the articulatory apparatus. The latter include the lower jaw, tongue, lips and soft palate.
The lower jaw moves down and up; the soft palate rises and falls, thus closing and opening the passage into the nasal cavity; the tongue and lips can take a wide variety of positions. A change in the position of the speech organs entails the formation of gates and constrictions in various parts of the articulatory apparatus, due to which one or another character of the sound is determined.
The tongue is rich in muscles, making it very mobile: it can lengthen and shorten, become narrow and wide, flat and curved.
The soft palate, or velum, ending in a small uvula, lies at the top oral cavity and is a continuation of the hard palate, starting at the upper teeth with alveoli. The velum palatine has the ability to move down and up and thus separate the pharynx from the nasopharynx. When pronouncing all sounds except m and n, the velum palatine is raised. If for some reason the velum is inactive and is not raised, then the sound is nasal (nasal), since when the velum is lowered, sound waves pass primarily through the nasal cavity.
The lower jaw, due to its mobility, is a very important organ of the articulatory (sound-pronunciation) apparatus, as it contributes to the full development of stressed vowel sounds (a, o, u, e, i, s).
The painful state of individual parts of the articulatory apparatus is reflected in the correct resonance and clarity of pronounced sounds. Therefore, in order to develop the necessary articulation, all organs involved in the formation of speech sounds must work correctly and in concert.
The speech organs are shown in the following figure:
1 - hard palate; 2 - alveoli; 3 - upper lip; 4 - upper teeth; 5 - lower lip; 6 - lower teeth; 7 - front part of the tongue; 8 - middle part of the tongue; 9 - back of the tongue; 10 - root of the tongue; 11 - vocal cords; 12 - soft palate; 13 - tongue; 14 - larynx; 15 - trachea..
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: respiratory, vocal and articulatory. The respiratory section includes rib cage with lungs, bronchi and trachea. Producing speech is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed during the exhalation phase. During the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions. Breathing during speech is significantly different from normal. Exhalation is much longer than inhalation. In addition, at the time of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half that of normal breathing.
Articulatory apparatus
Articulation is the activity of the speech organs associated with the pronunciation of speech sounds and their various components that make up syllables and words.
Organs of speech articulation are organs that provide movement of the oral cavity.
Position (articulatory) - the position that the organs occupy (take) when moving.
The organs of the oral cavity and the oral cavity itself are of particular importance for articulation. It is in it that the voice is repeatedly amplified and differentiated into certain sounds, that is, the emergence of phonemes is ensured. Here, in the oral cavity, sounds of a new quality are formed - noises, from which articulate speech is subsequently formed. The ability to differentiate the voice into specific phonemes occurs because the organs of the oral cavity and the structures that form the oral cavity are in motion. This leads to a change in the size and shape of the oral cavity, to the formation of certain closures that either close or narrow the oral cavity:
When closed, the flow of air is delayed in order to then noisily break through this shutter and this contributes to the emergence of certain certain speech sounds;
When narrowing, a fairly long-lasting noise occurs, which occurs as a result of friction. air flow against the walls of the narrowed cavity and this causes the appearance of another kind of speech sounds.
The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palates, and alveoli. These are mainly organs that are located in the oral cavity.
Anatomically, the mouth is divided into two parts: the vestibule of the mouth and the oral cavity itself.
The vestibule of the mouth is a slit-like space, bounded externally by the lips and cheeks, and internally by the teeth and alveolar processes of the jaws. The thickness of the lips and cheeks contains facial muscles; on the outside they are covered with skin, and on the side of the vestibule of the oral cavity - with mucous membrane. The mucous membrane of the lips and cheeks passes onto the alveolar processes of the jaws, while folds form on the midline - the frenulum of the upper and lower lips. On the alveolar processes of the jaws, the mucous membrane is tightly fused with the periosteum and is called the gum.
The oral cavity itself is limited above by the hard and soft palate, below by the diaphragm of the mouth, in front and on the sides by the teeth and alveolar processes, and at the back through the pharynx it communicates with the pharynx.
Lips
Lips are a very mobile formation. The lips are mainly formed by the orbicularis oris muscle, which provides:
A certain state of the oral cavity (open, closed);
Provides the ability to satisfy the need for food (sucking).
The orbicularis muscle has an arrangement of fibers around the opening (no beginning, no end), thus forming a very good sphincter. The muscle is attached to the oral opening at the back.
The lips have several more muscles in their composition - these are the quadratus muscle of the lower lip, the mental muscle, the incisive muscle, the triangular muscle, the quadratus muscle of the upper lip, the zygomatic muscle (canine muscle), the levator muscles upper lip and the corner of the mouth.
These muscles ensure the mobility of the circular muscle - they are attached to the facial bone of the skull at one end, and at the other end they are woven into certain place into the orbicularis oris muscle. Without forming the base of the lips, they provide lip mobility in different directions.
The lips are covered with a mucous membrane with inner surface, and the outside is still covered with epidermis. The orbicularis oris muscle is richly supplied with blood and therefore has a brighter color.
The role of lips in sound pronunciation. Lips are a special gate for a certain group of sounds; lips are actively involved in the articulation of other sounds that correspond to one or another way of language. But the outlines of the lips also provide articulation. The lips contribute to changes in the size and shape of the vestibule of the mouth and thereby influence the resonance of the entire oral cavity.
The neck muscle (trumpet muscle) is of great importance in speech activity. It, being a fairly powerful formation that closes the oral cavity on the sides, has a fairly prominent role in the articulation of sounds:
It forms a certain structure together with the orbicularis oris muscle for pronouncing certain sounds;
It changes the size and shape of the oral cavity, providing a change in resonance during articulation.
Cheeks
The cheeks, like the lips, are muscular formations. The buccal muscle is covered on the outside with skin, and on the inside with mucous membrane, which is a continuation of the mucous membrane of the lips. The mucous membrane covers the entire oral cavity from the inside, with the exception of the teeth.
The system of muscles that change the shape of the mouth opening also includes the group of masticatory muscles. These include the masseter muscle itself, the temporalis muscle, and the internal and external pterygoid muscles. The masseter and temporal muscles raise the lowered lower jaw. The pterygoid muscles, contracting simultaneously on both sides, push the jaw forward; When these muscles contract on one side, the jaw moves in the opposite direction. The lowering of the lower jaw when opening the mouth occurs mainly due to its own gravity (the chewing muscles are relaxed) and partly due to contraction of the neck muscles.
The muscles of the lips and cheeks are innervated by the facial nerve. The masticatory muscles receive innervation from the motor root of the trigeminal nerve.
Hard palate
The organs of articulation also include the hard palate. The hard palate is the bony wall that separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity and is both the roof of the oral cavity and the bottom of the nasal cavity. In its anterior (large) part, the hard palate is formed by the palatine processes of the maxillary bones, and in the posterior part - by horizontal plates of the palatine bones. The mucous membrane covering the hard palate is tightly fused with the periosteum. A bone suture is visible along the midline of the hard palate.
In its shape, the hard palate is a vault convex upward. Configuration of the palatal vault different people varies significantly. In cross section it can be taller and narrower or flatter and wider; in the longitudinal direction, the palatine vault can be dome-shaped, flat or steep.
The hard palate is a passive component of the lingual-palatal seal; it varies in configuration and shape, and the tension required from the muscles of the tongue to produce one or another structure largely depends on its configuration. The configuration of the hard palate is marked by diversity. There is a certain classification of the hard palate:
1. According to the width, length and height of the palatine vault (large, medium and small sizes of the vault).
2. According to the relationship between the indicators of length, height, width.
3. According to the profile of the gingival arch (line), that is, this part of the upper jaw that contains cells for teeth. In a horizontal section, three forms of the palate are distinguished: oval, blunt oval and pointed oval ovoid.
For speech articulation, the curvature of the palatine vault in the sagittal direction is especially significant. For different vault shapes, there are certain methods for forming different structures.
Soft palate
The soft palate is a formation that serves as a continuation of the hard palate, formed by bones.
The soft palate is a muscular formation covered with a mucous membrane. The back of the soft palate is called the velum palatine. When the palatine muscles relax, the velum palatine hangs down freely, and when they contract, it rises upward and backward. In the middle of the velum there is an elongated process - the uvula.
The soft palate is located at the border of the oral cavity and pharynx and serves as the second reed shutter. In its structure, the soft palate is an elastic muscular plate, which is very mobile and, under certain conditions, can close the entrance to the nasopharynx, rising upward and backward and opening it. These movements regulate the amount and direction of air flow from the larynx, directing this flow either through the nasal cavity or through the oral cavity, while the voice sounds differently.
When the soft palate is lowered, air enters the nasal cavity, and then the voice sounds muffled. When the soft palate is raised, it comes into contact with the walls of the pharynx and this ensures that sound production from the nasal cavity is turned off and only the oral cavity, the pharyngeal cavity and the upper part of the larynx resonate.
Language
The tongue is a massive muscular organ. When the jaws are closed, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is mobile, the back part is fixed and is called the root of the tongue. There are the tip and anterior edge of the tongue, the lateral edges of the tongue and the back of the tongue. The dorsum of the tongue is conventionally divided into three parts: anterior, middle and posterior. This division is purely functional in nature, and there are no anatomical boundaries between these three parts.
Most of the muscles that make up the mass of the tongue have a longitudinal direction - from the root of the tongue to its tip. The fibrous septum of the tongue runs along the entire tongue along the midline. It is fused with the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the dorsum of the tongue.
When the muscles of the tongue contract, a noticeable groove is formed at the site of fusion.
The muscles of the tongue are divided into two groups. The muscles of one group begin from the bony skeleton and end in one place or another on the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the tongue. The muscles of the other group are attached at both ends to various parts of the mucous membrane. Contraction of the muscles of the first group ensures the movement of the tongue as a whole; when the muscles of the second group contract, the shape and position of individual parts of the tongue change. All muscles of the tongue are paired.
The first group of muscles of the tongue includes:
Genioglossus muscle: begins on the inner surface of the lower jaw; its fibers, spreading out like a fan, go up and back and are attached to the back of the tongue in the region of its root; the purpose of this muscle is to push the tongue forward;
Myloglossus muscle: originates from the hyoid bone, located below and posterior to the tongue; the fibers of this muscle run in the form of a fan upward and forward, attaching to the mucous membrane of the back of the tongue; purpose - to push the tongue down;
Styloglossus muscle: begins in the form of a thin bundle from the styloid process, located at the base of the skull, goes forward, enters the edge of the tongue and goes to the midline towards the muscle of the same name on the opposite side; this muscle is the antagonist of the first: it retracts the tongue into the oral cavity.
The second group of muscles of the tongue includes:
The superior longitudinal muscle of the tongue, located under the mucous membrane of the dorsum of the tongue; its fibers end in the mucous membrane of the back and tip of the tongue; when contracted, this muscle shortens the tongue and bends its tip upward;
The inferior longitudinal muscle of the tongue, which is a long narrow bundle located under the mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue; contracting, the tongue hunches and bends its tip downwards;
Transverse muscle of the tongue, consisting of several bundles, which, starting on the septum of the tongue, pass through a mass of longitudinal fibers and are attached to the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the lateral edge of the tongue; the purpose of the muscle is to reduce the transverse size of the tongue.
The complexly intertwined system of tongue muscles and the variety of their attachment points provide the ability to change the shape, position and tension of the tongue within a wide range, which plays a large role in the process of pronunciation of speech sounds, as well as in the processes of chewing and swallowing.
The floor of the oral cavity is formed by the muscular-membranous wall, which runs from the edge of the lower jaw to the hyoid bone. The mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue, passing to the bottom of the oral cavity, forms a fold on the midline - the frenulum of the tongue.
The tongue receives motor innervation from the hypoglossal nerve, sensory innervation from the trigeminal nerve, and taste fibers from the glossopharyngeal nerve.
Hyoid bone
The hyoid bone plays an active role in the process of tongue motility, since the hyoid bone is one of the supporting points of the tongue. It is located on the midline of the neck, just below and posterior to the chin. This bone serves as the attachment point not only for the skeletal muscles of the tongue, but also for the muscles that form the diaphragm or the lower wall of the oral cavity.
The hyoid bone, together with the muscle formations, ensures a change in the oral cavity in its shape and size, and therefore takes part in the resonator function.
Dental system
The dental system is a direct continuation of the palatine vault - this is the system of dental crowns. The teeth are arranged in the form of two arches (upper and lower) and are strengthened in the alveoli (cells) of the upper and lower jaws.
In each tooth there is a crown protruding from the jaw cell and a root sitting in the cell; Between the crown and the root there is a slightly narrowed place - the neck of the tooth. Based on the shape of the crown, teeth are divided into incisors, canines, small molars and large molars. Incisors and canines belong to the front, or frontal, teeth, molars - to the back. The front teeth are single-rooted, the back teeth are two or three-rooted.
Teeth first appear 6-8 months after birth. These are the so-called temporary, or milk, teeth. The eruption of baby teeth ends by 2.5-3 years. By this time there are 20 of them: 10 in each jaw arch (4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 small molars). The replacement of milk teeth with permanent ones begins at the 7th year and ends at 13-14 years, with the exception of the last molars, the so-called wisdom teeth, which erupt at 18-20 years, and sometimes later.
There are 32 permanent teeth (16 teeth in each jaw arch, including 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 small molars and 6 large molars).
The process of tooth formation affects the configuration of the palatine vault. Thus, with premature loss of a baby tooth and delayed eruption of a permanent one, it leads to disruption of the development of the dental arch and dental process. When the loss of baby teeth is delayed, and the permanent teeth erupt in a timely manner, the gingival arch becomes curvature, which leads to the protrusion of individual teeth from the upper row. The bite is often disturbed (this is the relative position of the upper and lower dentition with the jaws closed)
Open bite. Direct bite. Deep bite
Types of bite.
Orthognathia. It occurs when the front teeth protrude above the back teeth. In this case, the rows of the upper and lower jaws are in contact with each other. This is the most favorable type of bite for speech activity.
Prognathia. It is observed when the upper front teeth protrude forward and the lower teeth are pushed back. In this case, the teeth do not contact each other, and when they are closed, a space is formed between them with a downward exit.
Progeny. It is observed when the lower jaw is pushed forward, and the upper jaw in its front part is pushed back. The upper front teeth do not reach the lower ones and when they close, a gap forms between them.
Open bite - there is a space between the upper and lower front teeth. In this case, the lateral teeth do not contact each other with their surfaces.
Direct bite - the teeth are absolutely symmetrical and contact each other along the entire length of the dentition.
Open lateral bite - The side teeth have defined gap-like spaces, but the front teeth may have a normal relationship.
Deep bite - lowering the upper jaw down, while there is contact between the inner surface of the teeth of the upper jaw and the outer surfaces of the teeth of the outer jaw.
Extension pipe
The volume and clarity of speech sounds are created thanks to resonators. Resonators are located throughout the extension pipe.
The extension tube is everything that is located above the larynx: the pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity.
In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds. In animals, the pharynx and mouth cavities are connected by a very narrow gap. In humans, the pharynx and mouth form a common tube - the extension tube. She performs important function speech resonator.
Due to its structure, the extension pipe can vary in volume and shape. For example, the pharynx can be elongated and compressed and, conversely, very stretched. Changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe are of great importance for the formation of speech sounds. These changes in the extension pipe create the phenomenon of resonance. As a result of resonance, some overtones of speech sounds are enhanced, while others are muffled. Thus, a specific speech timbre of sounds arises. For example, when a sound is pronounced, the oral cavity expands, and the pharynx narrows and elongates. And when pronouncing a sound, and vice versa, the oral cavity contracts and the pharynx expands.
The larynx alone does not create a specific speech sound; it is formed not only in the larynx, but also in resonators (pharyngeal, oral, nasal).
In the formation of speech sounds, the extension pipe performs a dual function: a resonator and a noise vibrator (the function of a sound vibrator is performed by the vocal folds, which are located in the larynx).
The noise vibrator is the gaps between the lips, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth, as well as the closures between these organs broken by a stream of air.
Using a noise vibrator, voiceless consonants are formed. At simultaneous switching on tone vibrator (vibration of the vocal folds) produces voiced and sonorant consonants.
The oral cavity and pharynx take part in the pronunciation of all sounds of the Russian language.
Conclusion
Given in this work brief information about the anatomical structure and functional organization of speech activity should contribute to the understanding of speech pathology and the choice of an adequate method of speech therapy.
Thus, the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second to form the voice, the third is a resonator that gives the sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, arising as a result of the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus.
In order for words to be pronounced in accordance with the intended information, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex to organize speech movements. These commands are called the articulatory program. The articulatory program is implemented in the executive part of the speech motor analyzer - in the respiratory, phonatory and resonator systems.
Speech movements are carried out so precisely that as a result, certain speech sounds arise and oral (or expressive) speech is formed.
References
1. Belyakova L.I., Dyakova E.A. Stuttering. Tutorial for students pedagogical institutes specializing in speech therapy - M.:V. Sekachev, 1998. - 2 p.
4. Filicheva T.B. and others. Fundamentals of speech therapy: Textbook. manual for pedagogical students. Institute for specialties “Pedagogy and psychology (preschool)” / T.B. Filicheva, N.A. Cheveleva, G.V. Chirkina, M.: Education, 1989. - 223 p.
Knowledge of the structure and functional organization of speech activity allows us to imagine the complex mechanism of normal speech, analyze speech pathologies and correctly determine the paths of corrective action. Speech is one of the highest mental functions of a person. The speech act is carried out complex system organs, in which the leading role belongs to the brain. The basis of any higher mental function is complex functional systems located in various areas of the central nervous system, at different levels and are united by the unity of working action.
Speech is the perfect form of communication that only humans possess. In the process of communication, people exchange thoughts and influence each other. Speech communication is carried out through language.
Language is a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The words necessary to express thoughts are selected, connected according to the rules of the grammar of the language and pronounced through the articulation of the speech organs. In order for a person’s speech to be articulate and understandable, the movements of the speech organs must be natural and accurate, automatic, which would be carried out without special effort. The speaker only monitors the progress of thought, and not the position of the tongue in the mouth. This occurs as a result of the mechanism of speech production. To understand the mechanism of speech production, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of the structure of the speech apparatus. The speech apparatus consists of two closely interconnected parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and the peripheral (or executive). The central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical ganglia, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata) and nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.
Speech develops on the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of primary importance in the formation of speech. These are the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes, predominantly of the left hemisphere (in left-handers, the right). The frontal gyrus is a motor area and is involved in the formation of one's own oral speech. The temporal gyrus is the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli are received. Therefore, we can perceive someone else's speech. The parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important for understanding speech. The occipital lobe is the visual area and mediates the acquisition of written language. The subcortical nuclei control the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech. The cerebral cortex is connected to the speech organs by two types of nerve pathways: centrifugal and centripetal.
Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the peripheral speech apparatus. The centrifugal pathway begins in the cerebral cortex. From the periphery to the center, that is, from the region of the speech organs to the cerebral cortex, centripetal paths go. The centripetal pathway begins in the proprioceptors and baroreceptors. Proprioceptors are found inside muscles, tendons and on the articular surfaces of moving organs. Baroreceptors are excited by changes in pressure on them and are located in the pharynx. The cranial nerves originate in the nuclei of the trunk: trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and hypoglossal. They innervate the muscles that move the lower jaw, facial muscles, muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate, as well as neck muscles, tongue muscles. Through this system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one.
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: respiratory, vocal and articulatory. The respiratory section is the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. Producing speech is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed during the exhalation phase. During the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions. Breathing during speech is significantly different from normal. Exhalation is much longer than inhalation; at the time of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half as much as during normal breathing. The vocal section is the larynx and the vocal folds located in it. Articulation is the activity of the speech organs associated with the pronunciation of speech sounds and their various components that make up syllables and words.
Organs of speech articulation are organs that provide movement of the oral cavity. Position (articulatory) - the position that the organs occupy (take) when moving. The organs of the oral cavity and the oral cavity itself are important for articulation. It is here that the voice is repeatedly amplified and differentiated into certain sounds, ensuring the emergence of phonemes. Here, in the oral cavity, sounds of a new quality are formed - noises, from which articulate speech is subsequently formed. The ability to differentiate the voice into specific phonemes occurs because the organs of the oral cavity and the structures that form the oral cavity are in motion. This leads to a change in the size and shape of the oral cavity, to the formation of certain closures that close or narrow the oral cavity. When closed, the air flow is delayed, then noisily breaks through this seal. This contributes to the emergence of certain specific speech sounds. When narrowing, a fairly long-lasting noise occurs, resulting from friction of the air flow against the walls of the narrowed cavity. This causes a different kind of speech sound to occur.
The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palates, and alveoli. Anatomically, the mouth is divided into two parts: the vestibule of the mouth and the oral cavity itself. The vestibule of the mouth is a slit-like space, bounded externally by the lips and cheeks, and internally by the teeth and alveolar processes of the jaws.
The thickness of the lips and cheeks contains facial muscles; on the outside they are covered with skin, and on the side of the vestibule of the oral cavity - with mucous membrane. The mucous membrane of the lips and cheeks passes onto the alveolar processes of the jaws, while folds form on the midline - the frenulum of the upper and lower lips. On the alveolar processes of the jaws, the mucous membrane is tightly fused with the periosteum and is called the gum. The oral cavity itself is limited above by the hard and soft palate, below by the diaphragm of the mouth, in front and on the sides by the teeth and alveolar processes, and at the back through the pharynx it communicates with the pharynx. Lips are a mobile formation. They are formed by the orbicularis oris muscle, which ensures a certain state of the oral cavity (open, closed) and ensures the ability to satisfy the need for food (sucking).
The lips have several other muscles in their composition - these are the quadratus muscle of the lower lip, the mental muscle, the incisive muscle, the triangular muscle, the quadratus muscle of the upper lip, the zygomatic muscle (canine muscle), the muscles that lift the upper lip and the angle of the mouth. These muscles ensure the mobility of the orbicularis muscle - they are attached at one end to the facial bone of the skull, and at the other end they are woven into the orbicularis oris muscle in a certain place. Without forming the base of the lips, they provide lip mobility in different directions. The lips are a special gate for a certain group of sounds; they actively participate in the articulation of other sounds that correspond to one or another structure of the language. The contours of the lips also provide articulation. The lips contribute to changes in the size and shape of the vestibule of the mouth, thereby influencing the resonance of the entire oral cavity. The neck muscle (trumpet muscle) is of great importance in speech activity. Being a fairly powerful formation that closes the oral cavity on the sides, it plays a sufficient role in the articulation of sounds. It forms a certain structure together with the orbicularis oris muscle to pronounce certain sounds, changes the size and shape of the oral cavity, providing a change in resonance during articulation.
The cheeks are a muscular formation. The buccal muscle is covered on the outside with skin, and on the inside with mucous membrane, which is a continuation of the mucous membrane of the lips. The mucous membrane covers the entire oral cavity from the inside, with the exception of the teeth. The system of muscles that change the shape of the mouth opening also includes the group of masticatory muscles. These include the masseter muscle, the temporalis muscle, and the internal and external pterygoid muscles. The masseter muscle and the temporalis muscle raise the lower jaw.
The pterygoid muscles, contracting simultaneously on both sides, push the jaw forward. When these muscles contract on one side, the jaw moves in the opposite direction. The lowering of the lower jaw when opening the mouth occurs mainly due to its own gravity (the chewing muscles are relaxed) and partly due to contraction of the neck muscles. The muscles of the lips and cheeks are controlled by the facial nerve. The masticatory muscles receive commands from the motor root of the trigeminal nerve. The organs of articulation also include the hard palate.
The hard palate is a bony wall that separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity and is both the roof of the oral cavity and the bottom of the nasal cavity. In its anterior part, the hard palate is formed by the palatine processes of the maxillary bones, and in the posterior part - by horizontal plates of the palatine bones. The mucous membrane covering the hard palate is tightly fused with the periosteum. A bone suture is visible along the midline of the hard palate. In its shape, the hard palate is a vault convex upward. The size of the vault varies greatly between individuals.
In cross section it can be taller and narrower or flatter and wider, and in the longitudinal direction the palatine vault can be domed, flat or steep. The hard palate is a passive component of the lingual palatal seal. The configuration of the hard palate is marked by diversity. There is a certain classification of the hard palate. In horizontal section, three shapes of the palate are distinguished: an oval shape, a blunt oval and a pointed oval ovoid shape. For speech articulation, the curvature of the palatine vault in the sagittal direction is especially significant. For different vault shapes, there are certain methods for forming different structures.
The soft palate is a formation that serves as a continuation of the hard palate, formed by bones. The soft palate is a muscular formation covered with a mucous membrane. The back of the soft palate is called the velum palatine. When the palatine muscles relax, the velum hangs down freely, and when they contract, it rises up and back. In the middle of the velum there is an elongated process - the uvula. The soft palate is located at the border of the oral cavity and pharynx and serves as the second reed shutter. In its structure, the soft palate is an elastic muscular plate, which is very mobile and, under certain conditions, can close the entrance to the nasopharynx, rising up and back and opening it. This regulates the amount and direction of air flow from the larynx, directing this flow either through the nasal cavity or through the oral cavity, causing the voice to sound differently. When the soft palate is lowered, air enters the nasal cavity, and the voice sounds muffled. When the soft palate is raised, it comes into contact with the walls of the pharynx and ensures that sound production from the nasal cavity is turned off; only the oral cavity, the pharyngeal cavity and the upper part of the larynx resonate.
The tongue is a massive muscular organ. When the jaws are closed, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is mobile, the back part is fixed and is called the root of the tongue. There are the tip and anterior edge of the tongue, the lateral edges of the tongue and the back of the tongue. The dorsum of the tongue is conventionally divided into three parts: anterior, middle and posterior. This division is purely functional in nature, and there are no anatomical boundaries between these three parts. Most of the muscles that make up the mass of the tongue have a longitudinal direction - from the root of the tongue to its tip. The fibrous septum of the tongue runs along the entire tongue along the midline. It is fused with the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the dorsum of the tongue.
The muscles of the tongue are divided into two groups. The muscles of one group begin from the bony skeleton and end in one place or another on the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the tongue. The muscles of the other group are attached at both ends to various parts of the mucous membrane. Contraction of the muscles of the first group ensures the movement of the tongue as a whole, while contraction of the muscles of the second group changes the shape and position of individual parts of the tongue. The first group of muscles of the tongue includes the genioglossus muscle, the hyoglossus muscle, and the styloglossus muscle. The second group of muscles of the tongue includes the upper longitudinal muscle of the tongue, located under the mucous membrane of the back of the tongue, the lower longitudinal muscle of the tongue, which is a long narrow bundle located under the mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue, the transverse muscle of the tongue, consisting of several bundles, which, starting on septum of the tongue, pass through a mass of longitudinal fibers and are attached to the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the lateral edge of the tongue. The complexly intertwined system of tongue muscles and the variety of their attachment points provide the ability to change the shape, position and tension of the tongue within a wide range, which plays a large role in the process of pronunciation of speech sounds, as well as in the processes of chewing and swallowing.
The floor of the oral cavity is formed by a muscular-membranous wall running from the edge of the lower jaw to the hyoid bone. The mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue, passing to the bottom of the oral cavity, forms a fold on the midline - the frenulum of the tongue. The hyoid bone plays an active role in the process of tongue motility. It is located along the midline of the neck, just below and behind the chin. This bone serves as the attachment point not only for the skeletal muscles of the tongue, but also for the muscles that form the diaphragm or the lower wall of the oral cavity. The hyoid bone, together with the muscle formations, ensures a change in the oral cavity in its shape and size, and therefore takes part in the resonator function.
The volume and clarity of speech sounds are created thanks to resonators that are located throughout the extension pipe. The extension tube is everything that is located above the larynx: the pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity. In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds. In animals, the pharynx and mouth cavities are connected by a very narrow gap. In humans, the pharynx and mouth form a common tube - an extension tube, which, due to its structure, can change in volume and shape. For example, the pharynx can be elongated and compressed and, conversely, very stretched. Changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe are of great importance for the formation of speech sounds. These changes in the extension pipe create the phenomenon of resonance.
As a result of resonance, some overtones of speech sounds are enhanced, while others are muffled. A specific speech timbre of sounds arises. For example, when pronouncing the sound “a”, the oral cavity expands, and the pharynx narrows and elongates. And when pronouncing the sound “and”, on the contrary, the oral cavity contracts and the pharynx expands. The larynx alone does not create a specific speech sound; it is formed not only in the larynx, but also in resonators (pharyngeal, oral, nasal). In the formation of speech sounds, the extension pipe performs a dual function: a resonator and a noise vibrator (the function of a sound vibrator is performed by the vocal folds, which are located in the larynx). The noise vibrator is the gaps between the lips, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth, as well as the closures between these organs broken by a stream of air.
Using a noise vibrator, voiceless consonants are formed. When the tone vibrator is turned on simultaneously (vibration of the vocal folds), voiced and sonorant consonants are formed. The first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second to form the voice, the third is a resonator that gives sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, arising as a result of the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus. In order for words to be pronounced in accordance with the intended information, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex to organize speech movements. These commands are called the articulatory program.
The articulatory program is implemented in the executive part of the speech motor analyzer. In the respiratory, phonatory and resonator systems. Speech movements are carried out so precisely that as a result, certain speech sounds arise and oral (or expressive) speech is formed. Let's sum it up summary about the functions of different components of the speech apparatus in the articulation of sounds. The peculiarity of the extension pipe of the human vocal apparatus is that it not only amplifies the voice and gives it an individual coloring (timbre), but also serves as a place for the formation of speech sounds.
Some parts of the extension tube (nasal cavity, hard palate, posterior wall of the pharynx) are motionless and are called passive organs of pronunciation. Other parts (lower jaw, lips, tongue, soft palate) are movable and are called active organs of pronunciation. When the lower jaw moves, the mouth opens or closes.
Various movements of the tongue and lips change the shape of the oral cavity, forming different places the oral cavity of the bow or fissure. The soft palate, rising and pressing against the back wall of the pharynx, closes the entrance to the nose, falling - opens it. The activity of the active organs of pronunciation, which is called articulation, ensures the formation of speech sounds, i.e. phonemes. The acoustic features of speech sounds, which make it possible to distinguish them from each other by ear, are determined by the features of their articulation. Let's consider the features of articulation of vowel sounds. A common feature for all vowel sounds, which distinguishes their articulation from the articulation of all consonant sounds, is the absence of obstacles in the path of exhaled air. The sound arising in the larynx in the extension pipe is amplified and perceived as a clear voice without any admixture of noise. The sound of a voice, as has been said, consists of a fundamental tone and a number of additional tones - overtones.
In the extension pipe, not only the fundamental tone is amplified, but also the overtones, and not all overtones are amplified equally: depending on the shape of the resonating cavities, mainly the oral cavity and partly the pharynx, some frequency regions are amplified more, others less, and some frequencies are not amplified at all. These enhanced frequency regions, or formants, characterize the acoustic properties of various vowels. Each vowel sound corresponds to a special location of the active organs of pronunciation - the tongue, lips, soft palate. Thanks to this, the same sound, originating in the larynx, acquires a color characteristic of a particular vowel in the supernatant, mainly in the oral cavity.
The fact that the peculiarities of the sound of vowels do not depend on the sound arising in the larynx, but only on air vibrations in a correspondingly established oral cavity, can be verified by simple experiments. If you give the oral cavity the shape that it takes when pronouncing this or that vowel, for example “a”, “o” or “u”, and at this time pass a stream of air from the bellows past the mouth or click your finger on the cheek, then you can clearly hear a peculiar sound that quite clearly resembles the corresponding vowel sound. The shape of the oral cavity and pharynx, characteristic of each vowel, depends mainly on the position of the tongue and lips. Movements of the tongue back and forth, raising it more or less to a certain part of the palate change the volume and shape of the resonating cavity. The lips, stretching forward and rounding, form the opening of the resonator and lengthen the resonating cavity.
The articulatory classification of vowels is based on: 1) participation or non-participation of the lips; 2) degree of tongue elevation and 3) location of tongue elevation. Distinctive feature The articulation of consonants is that when they are formed, various kinds of obstacles arise in the path of the exhaled stream of air in the extension pipe. Overcoming these obstacles, the air stream produces noises, which determine the acoustic characteristics of most consonants. The nature of the sound of individual consonants depends on the method of noise formation and the place of its origin. In some cases, the organs of pronunciation form a complete closure, which is violently torn apart by a stream of exhaled air.
At the moment of this rupture (or explosion), noise is produced. This is how stop or plosive consonants are formed. In other cases, the active organ of pronunciation only approaches the passive one, so that a narrow gap is formed between them. In these cases, noise arises as a result of friction of the air stream against the edges of the gap. This is how fricative consonants are formed. If the organs of pronunciation that have formed a complete stop do not open instantly, by explosion, but by transitioning the closure into a fissure, then complex articulation arises with a stop beginning and a fissure end. This articulation is characteristic of the formation of closure-frictional (fused) consonants, or affricates. An air stream, overcoming the resistance of the organ of pronunciation blocking its path, can lead it to a state of vibration (trembling), resulting in a peculiar intermittent sound. This is how trembling consonants, or vibrants, are formed. If there is complete closure in one place of the extension tube (for example, between the lips or between the tongue and teeth), in another place (for example, on the sides of the tongue or behind the lowered soft palate), there may be a free passage for the air stream.
In these cases, almost no noise occurs, but the sound of the voice acquires a characteristic timbre and is noticeably muffled. The consonants formed with such articulation are called transitive consonants. Depending on where the air stream is directed - into the nasal cavity or into the oral cavity, transitive consonants are divided into nasal and oral. The characteristics of noise characteristic of consonants depend not only on the method of its formation, but also on the place of origin. Both explosion noise and friction noise can occur at different locations in the extension pipe. In some cases, the active organ of pronunciation, forming a stop or cleft, is the lower lip, and the consonants that arise are called labial. In other cases, the active organ of pronunciation is the tongue, and then the consonants are called lingual. When most consonants are formed, additional articulation may be added to the main method of articulation (bow, narrowing, vibration) in the form of raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate, or so-called palatalization; the acoustic result of palatalization of consonants is their softening.
The classification of consonants is based on following signs: 1) participation of noise and voice; 2) method of articulation; 3) place of articulation; 4) the absence or presence of palatalization, in other words - hardness or softness. Consonants formed with the help of the voice and with weakly expressed noise are called sonorant. Sonorant consonants are contrasted with all other consonants, which are called noisy. Unlike sonorant sounds, they are formed with the participation of fairly strong and clearly distinguishable noises. Noisy consonants are divided into two groups. One group is consonants formed without the participation of the voice, using only noise. They are called deaf. When pronouncing them, the glottis is open, the vocal cords do not vibrate.
Another group is consonants formed with the help of noise and accompanied by a voice. They are called voiced. Most noisy consonants are pairs of voiceless and voiced. According to the method of articulation, i.e. According to the method of forming a barrier between the active and passive organs of pronunciation, consonants are divided into five groups. Noisy consonants form three groups. The first is stops, or explosives. The second is fricative (protoic), or fricative. The third is occlusive-frictional (fused), or affricate. Sonorant consonants, according to the method of articulation, are divided into two groups: stop-passive and tremulous, or vibrant. According to the place of articulation, consonants are primarily divided into two groups depending on the active organ of pronunciation involved in their formation, namely labial and lingual. Labial consonants, in turn, are divided into two groups depending on the passive organ relative to which the lower lip articulates: labiolabial and labiodental.
Lingual consonants, depending on the passive organ in relation to which the tongue articulates, are divided into five groups: lingual-dental, lingual-alveolar, lingual-anteropalatal, lingual-mid-palatal, lingual-posterior palatal. Palatalized consonants (i.e., consonants formed using the additional articulation described above, which consists in raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate) are called soft, in contrast to non-palatalized, or hard consonants. Most consonants are pairs of hard and soft.
Components of the vocal apparatus:
- breathing apparatus (breathing mechanism)
- speech apparatus (articulatory)
- larynx with vocal cords and resonators
The breathing mechanism includes the nasal cavity and pharynx (nasopharynx), trachea, bronchi, right and left lung. 
The lungs are made of delicate porous tissue. This delicate tissue is a collection of vesicles (alveoli). The trachea, together with the bronchi, forms the bronchial tree. At the bottom the trachea passes into the bronchi, at the top into the larynx.
The lungs hold about five to six liters of air. A normal calm breath is approximately half a liter of air, and a deep breath is one and a half liters.
Speech apparatus includes the lower jaw, lips, tongue, teeth.
Larynx is a cone-shaped tube. Consists of cartilages: thyroid, arytenoid, carob, cricoid.
The vocal cords are attached to the larynx through cartilage.
Vocal cords- these are two muscle folds. Unlike other muscles, the muscles of the ligaments contract in various directions. Thanks to this, the ligaments acquire elasticity and elasticity, and can fluctuate not only completely, but also at the edges and in the middle.
Between the ligaments is the glottis, which looks like a triangle during phonation.
In a healthy state, the ligaments resemble the color of mother-of-pearl, the color of ivory, and when the voice is not in order, the ligaments turn red.
The ligaments are a delicate and fragile part of the vocal apparatus. They need to be treated with care so that the voice does not get tired.
Men and women have different lengths and thicknesses of ligaments. In low bass, the thickness of the ligaments is about five millimeters, the length is twenty-four to twenty-five millimeters. The length of the vocal cords in high sopranos is fourteen to nineteen millimeters, and the thickness is about two millimeters.
Voice resonators
Resonators that are located above the larynx - upper (head). This includes the cavity of the pharynx, mouth, and nose.
Those resonators that are located below the larynx - lower (chest). These are the trachea and bronchi.
If we use resonators correctly and send sound correctly, then when lower sounds are heard, the chest vibrates, and when high sounds are heard, the bridge of the nose vibrates.
Sound attack
The sound appears at the moment when air breaks through the closed glottis and the ligaments begin to vibrate.
The very first moment after taking the breath and the appearance of sound is the attack of sound.
There are three types of sound attack:
- hard
- soft
- aspirated
Solid Attack
A firm attack is a complete closure of the ligaments until sound occurs, and then an energetic breakthrough of the ligaments with air. A solid attack makes it possible to accurately move from sound to sound without any “entries.” To develop accurate intonation, pieces performed with a firm attack will help - strong-willed, march-like, energetic.
Soft attack
A soft attack is the closure of the ligaments at the moment the sound occurs. Therefore, a barely noticeable, calm singing appears. Lyrical, melodious works, such as lullabies, are sung on a soft attack. Such works are recommended for performance if the vocalist’s sound does not “flow” or “stretch”.
Aspirate attack
The aspirate attack is sometimes used as a means of artistic expression, as a coloring. The sound appears when the ligaments are not completely closed, and then, as if delayed, the complete closure of the ligaments occurs.
In singing, they use a hard and soft attack. And only rarely, for example, to convey the intonations of a sigh or cry, an aspirated attack is used.
If you ask a musician playing a guitar, violin, piano or bassoon, flute, trumpet, how sounds are extracted from the instrument, what their strength and duration depend on, he will tell you about the features of his instrument and what needs to be done to make the sounds were of different tonality, strength, and length.
But if you ask the same musician a question, how, when he speaks, does he transform air stream into a sound wave and where, with the help of which this wave is converted into the sounds of speech, then one can hardly expect an intelligible answer. What musicians! Not every professional lecturer, teacher, lawyer, diplomat, politician, for whom speaking is a professional necessity, will give the correct answer. While For for everyone who, by their profession, “works” with their voice, the speech apparatus is unique musical instrument, created by nature and therefore perfect, which you need to know in all its subtleties in order to successfully use it.
Where and how are speech sounds formed? What determines their strength, timbre, breadth? How can you use your voice to convey thoughts, feelings, the state of a person’s soul, and influence others? What processes occur during this process and what laws of acoustics, physiology, and psychology underlie them?
Scientists have determined that the sound of a voice is a form of energy. This energy, generated by the human vocal apparatus, spreading at high speed, vibrates air molecules with a certain frequency and force. The pitch of the sound depends on the frequency of vibration, and its strength depends on the amplitude of vibration. Consequently, in order to understand the nature of sound, its acoustic and physiological characteristics, it is necessary first of all to study the speech apparatus, know its structure and be able to “play” it. After all, the success of a performance largely depends on the voice.
I. Andronikov, publicist, memoirist, critic, has a story “Chaliapin’s Throat.” The author retells what he heard from the famous artist of the Maly Theater Ostuzhev, who once had the opportunity to look into Chaliapin’s throat:
You don't know what - I - saw!!! Holding out your arms as if
offering to wind woolen threads around them, he rounded
He puts his palms together, connects his fingertips - hands meet;
looked around the space formed inside, gave me cash
looking into my eyes, he shouted loudly and abruptly:
CRATER!!!
A complete and tense pause - and again a furious exclamation:
A round arch is formed from the palms:
DOME!!! It goes right under the eyes... And under this
The dome gives birth to the unique timbre of Chaliapin's bass!..
The tongue, like a wave on a sultry afternoon, barely sways behind the necklace
we pour the lower teeth... AND IN THE WHOLE LARYNX NOT ONE
EXTRA DETAIL!.. It is considered as a structure
great master! And I can't take my eyes off this extraordinary
new spectacle!.. .
The narrator pays attention to the size of the pharynx, its depth (crater!), the height of the palate (dome!), and the tongue (like a wave on a sultry afternoon). These are all components of the speech apparatus, and for each person it has its own dimensions, its own configuration.
What does this depend on? From nature? What nature has bestowed is what you have? One of Ostuzhev’s friends, when he told him about what he saw, remarked:
I know Chaliapin's throat. I agree with you - this is a miracle! But not nature! This is a miracle of work, systematic training. Chaliapin by nature has a magnificent bass - the rarest ligaments! And an ordinary throat. But his first singing teacher, Usatov, special exercises managed to raise his soft palate, expanded the walls of his larynx, he taught Chaliapin - well, how can I explain it to you - to gargle with sounds... .
Well, it turns out that! Each person, by performing the necessary exercises, can bring his speech apparatus to perfection or significantly develop and improve it.
Look carefully at the diagram:
the spirit is drawn into the lungs and pushed out. The volume of the lungs, how much air they can hold and then push out, determines the strength of the sound and its duration.
When Tamagno performed on the stage of the Bolshoi Theater, the artist Ostuzhev once told Irakli Andronikov, Moscow students, who always knew everything best, never purchased tickets to the gallery. They listened to him for free - from Petrovka. This young fellow had such a voice that before the performance he had to lace a special corset on his naked body so as not to sigh full breasts. As you know, you never hear an orchestra or a choir on the street... but Tamagno's voice penetrated dormer windows in the attic. If it had not been laced, then, perhaps, the walls would have cracked, and some theater, smaller than our Bolshoi, would have started to roar into chaos.
Of course, you can believe this or not, but the fact remains: the strength of sound depends on the depth and strength of inhalation and exhalation.
However, sound is not always produced when air is inhaled and exhaled. To live, a person must breathe, even in sleep. With the cessation of breathing, death occurs.
When and how does air turn into sound or contribute to the formation of sound? And not just any sound, but the sound of speech.
The most active articulator is the tongue. It feels like a master in the mouth: it will either press against the teeth, then retreat from them, then begin to rise towards the palate, then go deeper into the oral cavity. The character of most sounds of the Russian language depends on its movements. Not by chance verbal(verbal, sound) method of communication called tongue.
ABOUT The dominant role of the tongue in the formation of sounds is evidenced by the expressions: “Have you lost your tongue?”, “Has your tongue stuck to your larynx?”, “Have you swallowed your tongue?” or “Are you without a tongue?”, “Have you lost your tongue?” This is what they say when the person being addressed is silent and does not answer.
How much set expressions, the imagery of which is created due to direct meaning words language (“organ of speech”)! “Keep your mouth shut” (Be quiet, don’t talk too much). “What a long tongue he has, he doesn’t know how to restrain himself in conversation.” If they say about someone that he has tongue without bones, this means that he loves to talk, talks a lot of nonsense and nonsense. “It’s just begging to be spoken to, the tongue itches,” they say when they really want to say something, when they can’t restrain themselves, endure it, so as not to speak, not to say something. But if a person cannot articulately and clearly express his thoughts, then they say: “He is tongue-tied.”
Now can you imagine how complex, how perfect and necessary for a person nature blessed him with the device.
By the nature of the speech sound, by the physical style of speech, we judge the speaker’s temperament, his character, attitude, his mood, and finally, his sincerity. Vigor and lethargy, energy and inertia, determination and timidity, interest and indifference - all these mental moments that accompany oral speech, as if accompanying its content, are faithfully reflected in the sound stream. In colloquial speech, this reflection is immediate, involuntary, and is not controlled by the consciousness of the speaker. In public speech it must become a conscious and deliberate instrument of influence.
An actor, reciter, orator, teacher, lecturer - anyone who wants to influence the sound of speech - must, through systematic observations, realize the expressive significance of individual factors of speech sound and integral phonetic styles, must learn to deliberately evoke a certain emotional and volitional reaction with the sound of his speech.
Of course, an optimist and a happy person will have a joyful, happy, ringing voice, while a pessimist will have a “dissatisfied, gloomy, irritated, deaf voice; an angry person most often speaks in a raised voice, and a sick person will speak in a weak, painful, intermittent voice. This means that in the concept “ character of speech sound" includes speech tonality, tempo, duration and frequency of pauses, diction.
The dependence of the voice on the character and condition of a person is evidenced by many definitions of the word voice, For example: decisive, brave, timid, sluggish, indifferent, painful, ingratiating, enthusiastic, cheerful, cheerful, serious, funny, interested, inert, indecisive, compliant, rude, impudent, boorish, polite, intelligent, friendly, commanding, humble, domineering, brave, calm, excited, anxious, bossy, truthful, deceitful, treacherous, sincere, irritated, cheerful, dejected, grumbling, boring, frivolous, energetic.
This is how many different shades a voice can have, conveying the state of the speaker, his character, attitude towards the interlocutor, the subject of speech, the degree of education and upbringing.
TEST QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What is the speech apparatus?
