In the process of economic research, a large number of methods and techniques are used. Let's look at the main ones.

The essence of the abstract method is that the researcher, when studying economic processes, can mentally abstract from the particular properties and connections between economic phenomena, focusing on the general features that characterize the essential aspects. The result of abstraction is the formation of general concepts and laws in the economy such as needs, resources, laws of supply and demand, etc. The formation of the conceptual apparatus of economic science creates the conditions for the analysis and synthesis of economic phenomena.

The method of analysis and synthesis is that in the process of cognition the researcher first mentally decomposes the object being studied into constituent elements, analyzes the features of each of them, then reveals the essential connections between them, and restores the dismembered object.

Thus, we can consider in detail all the factors influencing the size of the market supply of a given product, determine which of them influence an increase in supply and which lead to a reduction in supply, and give a quantitative assessment of all this. In the future, through synthesis, taking into account all the pros and cons, it is possible to predict the direction of change in the market supply of goods in the future.

At the same time, the researcher must avoid mistakes associated with the mechanical transfer of results that are correct for individual parts of the overall process, but unacceptable for the whole. For example, for a company, all other things being equal, the effective form of management is command-hierarchical. Managing a company requires strict subordination. The head of the company (manager), using a system of orders and instructions, organizes the process of production and sale of goods and services. At the same time, the extension of such a management system to the macro level and the creation of a command economic system within a country and a group of countries has shown its inconsistency.

In addition, when analyzing and synthesizing economic phenomena, the assumption “all other factors” is widely used. equal conditions". It means that all variable factors influencing economic results are divided into two groups: accepted in a given scientific research as unchangeable and actually variable factors. For example, when analyzing market demand for a product, we can proceed from the fact that the amount of demand is influenced by only one factor - price, abstracting from many other factors (the number of buyers, their tastes, the expected level of inflation, etc.)

A continuation of the method of analysis and synthesis is modeling. In economics, a model is a mentally constructed and described sample that reproduces in its main features a real economic process. One of the first economic models were the famous “economic tables” of the 18th century French economist F. Quesnay. In them, the author examined the proportions that must be observed in society when producing material goods. Subsequently, K. Marx, L. Walras, V. Leontiev and others were involved in modeling economic processes. Modern economic modeling widely uses mathematical apparatus, mathematical programming, probability theory, and mathematical statistics.

In the process of constructing economic models, functional analysis plays an important role. As is known from a mathematics course, a numerical function y=ƒ(x) exists if for any numerical set X the law ƒ is specified, according to which each number x from this set is associated singular u.

The independent variable x is called the argument of the function, and the dependent variable y is called the function. Moreover, if with an increase (decrease) in the argument the value of the function increases (decreases), then there is a direct connection between them. In the case where the argument and the function change in different directions, there is a gap between them feedback.

The functional dependence can be presented analytically (given by an algebraic formula), in the form of a table or graph.

The general form of analytical notation y=ƒ(x), where ƒ - a characteristic of a function indicating the actions that must be done with x to obtain y. For example, the equation y=a+bx shows that to obtain y we need to multiply the variable value x by the coefficient b and add the resulting product with a constant number a. The advantage of the analytical form of notation is its compactness and the ability to perform various mathematical operations that facilitate the search for function values. At the same time, the analytical approach does not provide a clear idea of the directions of change in the function. Thus, we know that, other things being equal, the quantity of demand for a given product (Qd) depends on its price (P). In analytical form this can be represented as Qd= f(P).However, it is difficult to determine from the formula in which direction Qd changes when the price increases or decreases.

The tabular form of recording functional dependence overcomes this drawback. It provides the ability to represent quantitative relationships between relevant variables. For example, in a table we can show the quantity demanded for a product at each price level. At the same time, the tabular form of recording is not without drawbacks: in the table the relationship between x and y is shown only for discrete quantities, which makes it difficult to identify the general trend of changes in y as x changes.

A graphical form is used to identify the relationship between argument and function for all x € X. The graph of the function y = ƒ(x) is the set of all points of the Cartesian coordinate system of the form (x; ƒ(x)), where x € X. Using the graph, you can easily find the value of the function for x € X.

The experimental method involves the artificial reproduction of any economic process. With the help of an experiment, one can identify its positive and negative aspects and assess the possibility and necessity of practical implementation. For example, the conveyor system of production organization, before receiving worldwide recognition, was tested in the automotive industry by G. Ford.

The creation of a command socio-economic system in our country in 1917 can be considered as a macroeconomic experiment. The reforms of the market economy, carried out in developed countries according to the recipes of Dmitry Keynes, M. Friedman, and other economists, were also experimental in nature.

The quantitative side of mass socio-economic phenomena and processes in their qualitative certainty is studied using special statistical methods and techniques. Their widespread use in economics is due to the fact that in economic research, as a rule, one has to deal not with individual isolated facts, but with statistical sets of interrelated facts.

In economics, a statistical aggregate is understood as a set of any socio-economic objects that have common qualitative characteristics. In particular, when we introduce the concept of an entrepreneurial firm in microeconomics, we mean by it the entire set of organizations involved in processing resources into goods and services on a paid basis and delivering them to consumers. All entrepreneurial firms are characterized by certain qualitative characteristics: the desire to conduct business profitably, the processing of certain economic resources, the orientation of activities to satisfy market demand, etc.

In general, the methodology of economic research has common roots with other natural and social sciences. Its fundamental difference from them lies mainly in the objects of research. Economics studies problems associated with the rational choice of economic entities (households, business firms, government agencies). This choice is based on a comparison of costs and benefits received.

In economics, both in science and in the curriculum, methodology is necessarily present. Methodology is the science of methods, the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge.

Economics as a science uses a variety of forms and methods of scientific knowledge, including observation; processing of the obtained material through synthesis and analysis; induction and deduction; systematic approach; development of hypotheses and their testing; conducting experiments; development of models in logical and mathematical forms.

Methods of economic science– a set of ways and techniques of cognition of economic relations and their reproduction in the system of categories and laws.

Considering the patterns of changes in economic processes, economic theory uses methods of economic and mathematical modeling (the study of processes and phenomena not directly, but through auxiliary objects), which appeared in the 20th century.

In economic science, methods of scientific abstraction, analysis and synthesis are widely used, systematic approach, modeling methods (primarily graphic, mathematical and computer modeling).

Method of scientific abstraction (abstraction) consists in abstracting in the process of cognition from external phenomena, unimportant details and highlighting the essence of an object or phenomenon. As a result of these assumptions it is possible to develop, for example, scientific concepts, expressing the most general properties and connections of the phenomena of reality - categories. Thus, abstracting from the countless differences in the external properties of millions of different goods produced in the world, we unite them into one economic category - goods, fixing the main thing that unites various goods - these are products intended for sale.

Method of analysis and synthesis involves studying a phenomenon both in parts (analysis) and as a whole (synthesis). For example, by studying the main properties of money (money as a measure of value, as a means of circulation, payment, savings), we can, on this basis, try to put them together, generalize (synthesize) and conclude that money is a special commodity that serves as a universal equivalent. By combining analysis and synthesis, we provide systemic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.

Also widely used induction and deduction.

Induction is the process of creating a theory from a set of observations. Through induction, a transition is ensured from the study of individual facts to general provisions and conclusions.

Deduction– the process of predicting future events using theory. Deduction makes it possible to move from the most general conclusions to relatively specific ones.

The most important method is eq. theory is systematic approach, exploring functional relationships - direct and inverse dependencies between variables. Its use has shown that eq. laws and categories are not absolute, but relative in nature, which allows us to move away from one-sidedness and categorical judgments.

Economic model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined both by its objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study.

A model in economics gives a simplified picture of reality, allows you to make generalizations and assumptions in abstract form(graphical, mathematical).

Modeling, those. building models reflects the main economic indicators (data, variables) of the objects under study and the connections between them (their interrelations). If the model contains only the most general description indicators and their relationships, then this is a text model. If these indicators and relationships are given quantitative values, then on the basis of the text model it is possible to build graphic, mathematical and computer models that reflect how the indicators (data, variables) change.

Models are divided into static and dynamic.

Static models are designed to study a phenomenon at a certain point in time.

Dynamic models - a model illustrates changes in the phenomenon being studied over a certain period.

Economic and mathematical modeling, being one of system methods research allows us to determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, possibilities and results of influencing the course of changes, and also makes forecasting economic processes realistic.

Also used graphic method– involves the use of graphs and tables to illustrate images.

Graphical method(graphical modeling method) is based on constructing models using various drawings - graphs, diagrams, diagrams. The interdependence of economic indicators is especially well demonstrated by graphs - images of the relationship between two or more variables.

The dependence can be linear (i.e. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

State educational institution higher professional education

RUSSIAN STATE TRADE AND ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY

Novosibirsk branch

Faculty of Trade and Economics

C U R S O V A Y WORK

by discipline"Economic Theory"

on the topic “Methodology for studying economic processes and phenomena”

Novosibirsk 2010

Introduction

1.1 Basic concepts

1. Methodology analysis

2.1 Concept and types

3. Ways to improve

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

To properly understand the course “Economic Theory” it is necessary to define the methods of economic theory. For three centuries now, economic theorists various directions and schools express conflicting views. During this time, ideas about the sources of society's wealth, the role of the state in economic activity changed several times, and even the name of science itself was updated.

The first reason to study economic theory is that this theory deals with problems that concern us all without exception: what types of jobs need to be done? How are they paid? How many goods can you buy per conventional unit? wages now and during the period of galloping inflation? What is the probability of a time coming when a person will not be able to find a suitable job within an acceptable period?

Economic theory is designed to study and explain the processes and phenomena of economic life, and for this, economic theory must penetrate into the essence of deep processes, reveal laws and predict ways of their use.

In economic processes, one can detect two unique layers of relations between people: the first of them is superficial, externally visible, the second is internal, hidden from external observation.

The study of externally visible economic relations is naturally available to every person. Therefore, already from childhood, people develop ordinary economic thinking, which is based on direct knowledge of economic life. Such thinking, as a rule, is distinguished by its subjective nature, in which the individual psychology of a person is manifested. It is limited by a person’s personal horizons and is often based on fragmentary and one-sided information;

Economic theory strives to discover behind the external appearance of economic phenomena the essence - their internal content, as well as the cause-and-effect dependencies of some phenomena on others. Professor Paul Heine (USA) made an interesting comparison: “An economist knows the real world no better, and in most cases worse than managers, engineers, mechanics, in a word, business people. But economists know how different things are connected. Economics allows us to better understand what we see and to think more consistently and logically about a wide range of complex social relations.

The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that, without knowing the methods for studying economic phenomena, it is impossible to correctly assess a particular economic event, to calculate whether the enterprise will make a profit, or vice versa.

The purpose of the coursework is to consider methods for studying economic processes and phenomena.

Tasks course work: We will look at the methodology in theory, conduct analysis, and also consider ways to improve this topic.

1. Theory of studying methods of economic processes and phenomena

1.1 Basic concepts

First, let’s look at the very concept of methodology and what it includes.

The methodology of science, as is known, is the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge. Therefore, the methodology of economic theory is the science of the principles of constructing an economic system, of methods for studying economic activity.

The methodology of economic theory is the science of methods for studying economic life and economic phenomena. It presupposes the presence of a common approach to the study of economic phenomena, a common understanding of reality, and a common philosophical basis. The methodology is designed to help solve main question: with the help of what scientific methods, methods of understanding reality, economic theory achieves true illumination of the functioning and further development one or another economic system. In the methodology of economic theory, four main approaches can be distinguished:

1) subjectivist (from the standpoint of subjective idealism);

2) neopositivist-empirical (from the standpoint of neopositivist empiricism and skepticism);

3) rationalistic;

4) dialectical-materialistic.

With a subjectivist approach, the starting point for the analysis of economic phenomena is taken as an economic entity influencing the world around us, and the sovereign “I” is relatively independent, hence everyone is equal. The object of economic analysis is the behavior of the subject of the economy ("homoeconomics"), and therefore economic theory is considered as the science of human activity, determined by the boundaries of needs. The main category in this approach is need, usefulness. Economics becomes the theory of choice made by an economic entity from various options.

The neopositivist-empirical approach is based on a more thorough study of phenomena and their assessment. The technical apparatus of research is put at the forefront, which turns from a tool into an object of knowledge (mathematical apparatus, econometrics, cybernetics, etc.), and the result of the research is various kinds of empirical models, which are the main categories here. This approach involves dividing into microeconomics - economic problems at the firm and industry level, and macroeconomics - economic problems on a societal scale.

The rationalistic approach aims to discover the “natural” or rational laws of civilization. This requires a study of the economic system as a whole, the economic laws governing this system, and a study of the economic “anatomy” of society. The economic tables of F. Quesnay are the pinnacle of this approach. The purpose of human economic activity is the desire to obtain benefit, and the purpose of economic theory is not the study of human behavior, but the study of the laws governing production and distribution social product(D. Ricardo). This approach recognizes the division of society into classes, in contrast to the subjectivist approach, which represents society as a set of equal subjects. The main attention in this approach is paid to cost, price, and economic laws.

The dialectical-materialistic approach is considered the only correct one in solving scientific problems based not on empirical positivism (experience), but on objective analysis characterizing the internal connections of phenomena that exist in reality. Economic processes and phenomena constantly arise, develop and are destroyed, i.e. are in constant motion, and this is their dialectic. Methodology cannot be confused with methods - tools, a set of research techniques in science and their reproduction in the system of economic categories and laws.

The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis are: a) determination of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize economic activity organizations;

b) establishing the subordination of indicators, highlighting the total effective factors and factors (major and secondary) influencing them;

c) identifying the form of relationship between factors;

d) selection of techniques and methods for studying the relationship;

e) quantitative measurement of the influence of factors on the aggregate indicator.

The set of techniques and methods that are used in the study of economic processes constitutes the methodology of economic analysis. The methodology of economic analysis is based on the intersection of three areas of knowledge: economics, statistics and mathematics. Economic methods of analysis include comparison, grouping, balance sheet and graphical methods. Statistical methods include the use of average and relative values, the index method, correlation and regression analysis, etc. Mathematical methods can be divided into three groups: economic (matrix methods, production function theory, input-output balance theory); methods of economic cybernetics and optimal programming (linear, nonlinear, dynamic programming); methods of operations research and decision making (graph theory, game theory, queuing theory).

1.2 Characteristics of the main techniques and methods of economic analysis

Comparison is a comparison of the data being studied and the facts of economic life. A distinction is made between horizontal comparative analysis, which is used to determine absolute and relative deviations of the actual level of the indicators under study from the base level. Vertical comparative analysis used to study the structure of economic phenomena; trend analysis used in studying the relative rates of growth and increase in indicators over a number of years to the level of the base year, i.e. when studying time series.

Required condition comparative analysis is the comparability of the compared indicators, suggesting:

· unity of volume, cost, quality, structural indicators; · unity of time periods for which comparison is made; · comparability of production conditions and comparability of the methodology for calculating indicators.

Average values are calculated on the basis of mass data on qualitatively homogeneous phenomena. They help determine general patterns and trends in the development of economic processes.

Groupings - are used to study dependencies in complex phenomena, the characteristics of which are reflected by homogeneous indicators and different values (characteristics of the equipment fleet by commissioning time, by place of operation, by shift ratio, etc.)

The balance method consists of comparing and measuring two sets of indicators tending to a certain balance. It allows us to identify a new analytical (balancing) indicator as a result. For example, when analyzing an enterprise's supply of raw materials, the need for raw materials, sources of covering the need are compared and a balancing indicator is determined - a shortage or excess of raw materials.

As an auxiliary, the balance sheet method is used to check the results of calculations of the influence of factors on the resulting aggregate indicator. If the sum of the influence of factors on the performance indicator is equal to its deviation from the base value, then, therefore, the calculations were carried out correctly. Lack of equality indicates incomplete consideration of factors or mistakes made:

where y is the effective indicator; x-factors; - deviation of the effective indicator due to factor x i.

The balance method is also used to determine the size of the influence of individual factors on the change in the performance indicator, if the influence of other factors is known:

Graphic method. Graphs are a large-scale representation of indicators and their relationships using geometric shapes.

The graphical method has no independent significance in the analysis, but is used to illustrate measurements.

The index method is based on relative indicators that express the ratio of the level of a given phenomenon to its level taken as a basis for comparison. Statistics names several types of indices that are used in analysis: aggregate, arithmetic, harmonic, etc.

By using index recalculations and constructing a time series characterizing, for example, the output of industrial products in value terms, it is possible to skillfully analyze dynamic phenomena.

The method of correlation and regression (stochastic) analysis is widely used to determine the closeness of the relationship between indicators that are not functionally dependent, i.e. the connection is not manifested in each individual case, but in a certain dependence.

With the help of correlation, two main problems are solved:

· a model of operating factors is compiled (regression equation);

· a quantitative assessment of the closeness of connections is given (correlation coefficient).

Matrix models are a schematic representation of an economic phenomenon or process using scientific abstraction. The most widely used method here is the “input-output” analysis, which is built according to a checkerboard pattern and makes it possible to present the relationship between costs and production results in the most compact form.

Mathematical programming is the main means of solving problems to optimize production and economic activities.

The operations research method aims to study economic systems, including the production and economic activities of enterprises, in order to determine such a combination of structural interconnected elements of systems that will best allow us to determine the best economic indicator from a number of possible ones.

Game theory as a branch of operations research is a theory mathematical models acceptance optimal solutions in conditions of uncertainty or conflict between several parties with different interests.

2. Methodology analysis

2.1 Concept and types

Analysis is the mental division of the phenomenon being studied into its component parts and the study of each of these parts separately. Through synthesis, economic theory recreates a single holistic picture.

Widespread: induction and deduction. Through induction (guidance), a transition is ensured from the study of individual facts to general provisions and conclusions. Deduction (inference) makes it possible to move from general conclusions to relatively specific ones. Analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction are applied in unity by economic theory. Their combination provides a systematic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.

An important place in the study of economic phenomena and processes is occupied by historical and logical methods. They do not oppose each other, but are applied in unity, since the starting point historical research coincides, in general, with the starting point of logical research. However, the logical (theoretical) study of economic phenomena and processes is not a mirror reflection of the historical process. In the specific conditions of a particular country, economic phenomena may arise that are not obligatory for the prevailing economic system. If in fact (historically) they take place, then in theoretical analysis they can be ignored. We can take our minds off them. A historian cannot ignore this kind of phenomenon. He must describe them.

Using historical method, economics studies economic processes and phenomena in the sequence in which they arose, developed and were replaced by one another in life itself. This approach allows us to concretely and clearly present the features of various economic systems.

The historical method shows that in nature and society development proceeds from simple to complex. In relation to the subject of economics, this means that in the entire set of economic phenomena and processes it is necessary to highlight first of all the simplest ones, those that arise earlier than others and form the basis for the emergence of more complex ones. For example, in market analysis, such an economic phenomenon is the exchange of goods.

Economic processes and phenomena are characterized by qualitative and quantitative certainty. Therefore, economic theory (political economy) widely uses mathematical and statistical techniques and research tools that make it possible to identify the quantitative side of processes and phenomena of economic life, their transition to a new quality. At the same time, it is widely used computer technology. The method of economic and mathematical modeling plays a special role here. This method, being one of the systematic research methods, makes it possible to determine in a formalized form the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, opportunities and costs of influence, and also makes forecasting economic processes realistic. Using this method, economic models are created.

An economic model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined by its objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study.

In connection with the construction of models, it is important to note the role of functional analysis in economic theory.

Functions are variable quantities that depend on other variables.

Functions occur in our daily lives, and we most often do not realize it. They take place in technology, physics, geometry, chemistry, economics, etc. In relation to economics, for example, we can note the functional relationship between price and demand. Demand depends on price. If the price of a product increases, the quantity demanded for it, other things being equal, decreases. In this case, price is an independent variable, or argument, and demand is a dependent variable, or function. Thus, we can briefly say that demand is a function of price. But demand and price can change places. The higher the demand, the higher the price, other things being equal. Therefore, price can be a function of demand.

Economic-mathematical modeling as a method of economic theory became widespread in the 20th century. However, the element of subjectivity in constructing economic models sometimes leads to errors. Laureate Nobel Prize French economist Maurice Allais wrote in 1989 that for 40 years economic science has been developing in the wrong direction: towards completely artificial and divorced from life mathematical models with a predominance of mathematical formalism, which, in fact, represents a big step back.

Most models and principles of economic theory can be expressed graphically, in the form of mathematical equations, so when studying economic theory it is important to know mathematics and be able to draw up and read graphs.

Graphs are a representation of the relationship between two or more variables.

The dependence can be linear (i.e. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).

If the graph line goes from left to right in a descending direction, then there is an inverse relationship between the two variables (for example, as the price of a product decreases, the volume of its sales usually increases). If the graph line is ascending, then the connection is direct (so, as the production costs of a product increase, prices for it usually increase --). The dependence can be non-linear (i.e. changing), then the graph takes the form of a curved line (for example, as inflation decreases, unemployment tends to increase - the Phillips curve).

Within the framework of the graphical approach, diagrams are widely used - drawings showing the relationship between indicators. They can be circular, columnar, etc.

The diagrams clearly demonstrate the indicators of the models and their relationships. When analyzing economic problems, positive and normative analysis are often used. Positive analysis gives us the opportunity to see economic phenomena and processes as they really are: what was or what could be. Positive statements do not have to be true, but any dispute regarding a positive statement can be resolved by checking the facts. Normative analysis is based on the study of what should be and how it should be. A normative statement is most often derived from a positive one, but objective facts cannot prove its truth or falsity. In normative analysis, assessments are made - fair or unfair, bad or good, acceptable or unacceptable.

2.2 Methodology of factor analysis

All phenomena and processes of economic activity of enterprises are interconnected and interdependent. Some of them are directly related to each other, others indirectly. Hence, an important methodological issue in economic analysis is the study and measurement of the influence of factors on the value of the economic indicators under study.

Economic factor analysis is understood as a gradual transition from the initial factor system to the final factor system, the disclosure of a full set of direct, quantitatively measurable factors that influence the change in the performance indicator. Based on the nature of the relationship between indicators, methods of deterministic and stochastic factor analysis are distinguished.

Deterministic factor analysis is a technique for studying the influence of factors whose connection with the performance indicator is functional in nature.

The main properties of the deterministic approach to analysis: construction of a deterministic model through logical analysis; the presence of a complete (hard) connection between indicators; the impossibility of separating the results of the influence of simultaneously acting factors that cannot be combined in one model; studying relationships in the short term. There are four types of deterministic models:

Additive models represent an algebraic sum of indicators and have the form

Such models, for example, include cost indicators in relation to elements of production costs and cost items; an indicator of the volume of production in its relationship with the volume of output of individual products or the volume of output in individual departments.

Multiplicative models in a generalized form can be represented by the formula

An example of a multiplicative model is a two-factor model of sales volume

where H - average number workers;

CB - average output per employee.

Multiple models:

An example of a multiple model is the indicator of the turnover period of goods (in days). T O.T:

where Z T is the average stock of goods; О Р - one-day sales volume.

Mixed models are a combination of the above models and can be described using special expressions:

Examples of such models are cost indicators per 1 ruble. commercial products, profitability indicators, etc.

To study the relationship between indicators and quantitatively measure the many factors that influenced the performance indicator, we present general rules for transforming models to include new factor indicators.

To detail the generalizing factor indicator into its components, which are of interest for analytical calculations, the technique of lengthening the factor system is used.

If the original factor model

then the model will take the form

To identify a certain number of new factors and construct the factor indicators necessary for calculations, the technique of expanding factor models is used. In this case, the numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same number:

To construct new factor indicators, the technique of reducing factor models is used. When using this technique, the numerator and denominator are divided by the same number.

The detail of factor analysis is largely determined by the number of factors whose influence can be quantified, therefore great value in the analysis have multifactorial multiplicative models. Their construction is based on the following principles: the place of each factor in the model must correspond to its role in the formation of the effective indicator; the model should be built from a two-factor full model by sequentially dividing factors, usually qualitative, into components; When writing a multifactor model formula, factors should be arranged from left to right in the order in which they are replaced.

Construction of a factor model is the first stage of deterministic analysis. Next, determine the method for assessing the influence of factors.

The method of chain substitutions consists in determining a number of intermediate values of the generalizing indicator by sequentially replacing the basic values of the factors with the reporting ones. This method is based on elimination. Eliminate means to eliminate, exclude the influence of all factors on the value of the effective indicator, except one. Moreover, based on the fact that all factors change independently of each other, i.e. First, one factor changes, and all the others remain unchanged. then two change while the others remain unchanged, etc.

IN general view The application of the chain production method can be described as follows:

where a 0, b 0, c 0 are the basic values of factors influencing the general indicator y;

a 1, b 1, c 1 - actual values of factors;

y a, y b, are intermediate changes in the resulting indicator associated with changes in factors a, b, respectively.

The total change Dу=у 1 -у 0 consists of the sum of changes in the resulting indicator due to changes in each factor with fixed values of the remaining factors:

Advantages this method: versatility of application, ease of calculations.

The disadvantage of the method is that, depending on the chosen order of factor replacement, the results of factor decomposition have different meanings. This is due to the fact that as a result of applying this method, a certain indecomposable residue is formed, which is added to the magnitude of the influence of the last factor. In practice, the accuracy of factor assessment is neglected, highlighting the relative importance of the influence of one or another factor. However, there are certain rules that determine the sequence of substitution: if there are quantitative and qualitative indicators in the factor model, the change in quantitative factors is considered first; if the model is represented by several quantitative and qualitative indicators, the substitution sequence is determined by logical analysis.

In analysis, quantitative factors are understood as those that express the quantitative certainty of phenomena and can be obtained by direct accounting (number of workers, machines, raw materials, etc.).

Qualitative factors determine the internal qualities, signs and characteristics of the phenomena being studied (labor productivity, product quality, average working hours, etc.).

The absolute difference method is a modification of the chain substitution method. The change in the effective indicator due to each factor using the method of differences is defined as the product of the deviation of the factor being studied by the basic or reporting value of another factor, depending on the selected substitution sequence:

The method of relative differences is used to measure the influence of factors on the growth of an effective indicator in multiplicative and mixed models of the form y = (a - b) . With. It is used in cases where the source data contains previously determined relative deviations of factor indicators in percentages.

For multiplicative models like y = a. V. The analysis technique is as follows: find the relative deviation of each factor indicator:

determine the deviation of the effective indicator y due to each factor

The integral method allows you to avoid the disadvantages inherent in the chain substitution method and does not require the use of techniques for distributing the indecomposable remainder among factors, because it has a logarithmic law of redistribution of factor loads. The integral method makes it possible to achieve a complete decomposition of the effective indicator into factors and is universal in nature, i.e. applicable to multiplicative, multiple and mixed models. Calculation operation definite integral is solved using a PC and comes down to constructing integrands that depend on the type of function or model of the factor system.

2. Ways to improve

Economic theory is the methodological foundation of a whole complex of sciences: sectoral (economics of trade, industry, transport, construction, etc.); functional (finance, credit, marketing, management, forecasting, etc.); intersectoral ( economic geography, demographics, statistics, etc.). Economic theory is one of the social sciences, along with history, philosophy, law, etc. It is designed to reveal one part of social phenomena in human life, the science of law - another, the science of morality - a third, etc., and only the totality of theoretical, social and historical sciences are able to explain the functioning of social life. Economic theory takes into account the knowledge inherent in specific economic sciences, as well as sociology, psychology, history, etc., without taking into account which its conclusions may turn out to be erroneous.

The connection between economic theory and other economic sciences in the most general form can be presented in the form of the following diagram (Scheme 1).

Practical significance of economic theory ( famous formula O. Comte) is that knowledge leads to foresight, and foresight leads to action. Economic theory should underlie economic policy, and through it, permeate the area of economic practice. Action (practice) leads to knowledge, knowledge to foresight, foresight to right action. Economic theory is not a set of rules about how to become rich. She does not give ready answers to all questions. Theory is just a tool, a way of understanding economic reality. Mastery of this tool and knowledge of the basics of economic theory can help everyone make the right choice in many life situations. Therefore, there is no need to stop at the knowledge achieved, but to constantly look for ways to improve this knowledge.

Conclusion

In this course work, we examined the basic concepts of methodology and identified four main approaches to methodology in economic theory. They characterized the basic techniques and methods of economic analysis, examined the concept and methodology of factor analysis. We concluded that it is better to use research methods comprehensively in order to see the results more clearly.

Today, a person cannot consider himself involved in education and culture if he has not studied and understood the laws of social development and has not mastered the knowledge of economic theory. After all, economic theory is not a set of rules on how to become rich. She does not give ready answers to all questions. Theory is just a tool, a way of understanding economic reality. Mastery of this tool and knowledge of the basics of economic theory can help everyone make the right choice in many life situations. Therefore, there is no need to stop at the knowledge achieved, but to constantly look for ways to improve this knowledge.

In conclusion, I would like to quote the words of J. Keynes that “the ideas of economists and political thinkers, both when they are right and when they are wrong, have much greater significance than is commonly thought. In reality, only they rule the world.” It follows from this that the problems of the economic organization of society are serious things that require study and which cannot be taken lightly.

Bibliography

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2. Bakanov M.I. Sheremet A.D. Theory of economic analysis. - N.: Textbook Finance and Statistics, 1997.

3. Efimova O.V. Financial analysis. - M.: Publishing house "Accounting", 1998.

4. Ripoll-Zaragosi F.B. Financial and management analysis. -M.: Prior Publishing House, 1999.

5. Richard Jacques. Audit and analysis of the economic activity of an enterprise. -M.: Audit. UNITY, 1997.

6. Savitskaya G.V. Analysis of the economic activities of an agro-industrial complex enterprise: Textbook. - Mn.: IP “Ecoperspective”, 1999.

7. Sheremet A.D. Comprehensive economic analysis of enterprise activity (methodology issues). - M.: Economics, 1974.

8. Sheremet A.D., Negashev E.V. Methodology of financial analysis. - M.: Infra - M, 1999.

9. Economic and mathematical methods in the analysis of economic activities of enterprises and associations. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1982

RUSSIAN STATE TRADE AND ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY

Novosibirsk branch

Faculty of Trade and Economics

C U R S O V A Y WORK

in the discipline "Economic Theory"

on the topic “Methodology for studying economic processes and phenomena”

Novosibirsk 2010

Introduction

1.1 Basic concepts

1. Methodology analysis

2.1 Concept and types

2.2 Methodology of factor analysis

3. Ways to improve

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

To properly understand the course “Economic Theory” it is necessary to define the methods of economic theory. For three centuries now, economic theorists of various directions and schools have expressed contradictory views. During this time, ideas about the sources of society's wealth, the role of the state in economic activity changed several times, and even the name of science itself was updated.

The first reason to study economic theory is that this theory deals with problems that concern us all without exception: what types of jobs need to be done? How are they paid? How many goods can you buy for a conventional unit of wages now and during a period of galloping inflation? What is the probability of a time coming when a person will not be able to find a suitable job within an acceptable period?

In economic processes, one can detect two unique layers of relations between people: the first of them is superficial, externally visible, the second is internal, hidden from external observation.

The purpose of the coursework is to consider methods for studying economic processes and phenomena.

Objectives of the course work: we will consider the methodology in theory, conduct an analysis, and also consider ways to improve this topic.

1. Theory of studying methods of economic processes and phenomena

1.1 Basic concepts

First, let’s look at the very concept of methodology and what it includes.

The methodology of economic theory is the science of methods for studying economic life and economic phenomena. It presupposes the presence of a common approach to the study of economic phenomena, a common understanding of reality, and a common philosophical basis. The methodology is designed to help solve the main question: with the help of what scientific methods and methods of understanding reality does economic theory achieve true illumination of the functioning and further development of a particular economic system. In the methodology of economic theory, four main approaches can be distinguished:

1) subjectivist (from the standpoint of subjective idealism);

2) neopositivist-empirical (from the standpoint of neopositivist empiricism and skepticism);

3) rationalistic;

4) dialectical-materialistic.

With a subjectivist approach, the starting point for the analysis of economic phenomena is taken as an economic entity influencing the surrounding world, and the sovereign “I” is relatively independent, hence everyone is equal. The object of economic analysis is the behavior of the subject of the economy ("homoeconomics"), and therefore economic theory is considered as the science of human activity, determined by the boundaries of needs. The main category in this approach is need, usefulness. Economics becomes the theory of choice made by an economic entity from various options.

The rationalistic approach aims to discover the “natural” or rational laws of civilization. This requires a study of the economic system as a whole, the economic laws governing this system, and a study of the economic “anatomy” of society. The economic tables of F. Quesnay are the pinnacle of this approach. The purpose of human economic activity is the desire to obtain benefit, and the purpose of economic theory is not the study of human behavior, but the study of the laws governing the production and distribution of the social product (D. Ricardo). This approach recognizes the division of society into classes, in contrast to the subjectivist approach, which represents society as a set of equal subjects. The main attention in this approach is paid to cost, price, and economic laws.

The dialectical-materialist approach is considered the only correct one in solving scientific problems on the basis not of empirical positivism (experience), but of objective analysis characterizing the internal connections of phenomena that exist in reality. Economic processes and phenomena constantly arise, develop and are destroyed, i.e. are in constant motion, and this is their dialectic. Methodology cannot be confused with methods - tools, a set of research techniques in science and their reproduction in the system of economic categories and laws.

The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis are: a) determination of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize the economic activities of organizations;

b) establishing the subordination of indicators, highlighting the total effective factors and factors (major and secondary) influencing them;

c) identifying the form of relationship between factors;

d) selection of techniques and methods for studying the relationship;

e) quantitative measurement of the influence of factors on the aggregate indicator.

1.2 Characteristics of the main techniques and methods of economic analysis

A prerequisite for comparative analysis is the comparability of the compared indicators, which presupposes:

The specificity and breadth of the subject of economic theories presupposes the specificity of the methodology and research methods of the objects being studied. Methodology is a general approach to the study of economic phenomena, based on special principles of construction and ways of knowing. It can be subjective, dialectical-materialistic, empirical, rationalistic. Currently, science is dominated by a rationalistic approach to the study of economic processes, which presupposes knowledge of the objective laws of economic civilization on the basis of a holistic study of the economic system, regardless of the class composition of society.

Methodology is based on methods. Method - it is a set of techniques and operations for theoretical and practical research of economic phenomena. It allows you to bring into the system a set of events and facts, establish connections between them and, on this basis, identify directions and trends in their development. One of the main methods of economic science is dialectical method - a method of cognition common to all fundamental sciences, which is described and studied in detail in a philosophy course. Its essence in relation to economics is as follows. Economic life and economic activity of people are considered in their continuous development. Of the many specific facts, episodes, and events, the most typical ones inherent in a given economic system are highlighted. Their study allows us to understand the meaning and content of events and facts, the internal logical connection between them, as well as the direction of development of the economic system itself. Another method often used in economic research is method of scientific abstraction. It assumes that from the entire spectrum of characteristics that give an idea of the object of study, the main, constant, essential (typical) features are distinguished. By abstracting from everything private, temporary, and accidental, the researcher has the opportunity not only to more accurately describe the content of an object, but also to identify the patterns of its development. Abstracting from the secondary, the researcher substantiates scientific categories, those. concepts that express the main - individual or generalized - characteristics of an economic process or phenomenon as the object of its research. The highest level of scientific abstraction is identification, formulation and, if possible, mathematical formalization economic law, revealing the essence of the object, its most stable internal and external connections.

An important place in the study of the economic life of society is occupied by the principle of unity of the historical and logical. It assumes that not only the logical relationship and dynamic interaction of the elements of the system are examined, but also the fact that each of them develops and changes historically.

The components of the method of economic theories are analysis And synthesis. As we know, economic relations between people form complex system. One of the methods for studying it is to decompose the system into separate components and study each of them separately. This is achieved through analysis. It can be positive or normative. Positive analysis means the study of economic phenomena and subjects as they appeared to the researcher. Collection, description, analysis of statistical data and economic facts occur without evaluating them: are they good or bad, sufficient or insufficient, etc. Positive analysis of objective reality as a method of knowledge is the same for all sciences - social and natural. Regulatory analysis - This is a study from the standpoint of an already existing theoretical or practical understanding of how economic processes should be carried out under certain conditions. This method includes assessments of certain phenomena, notes deviations from the norm, for example very high level inflation, unacceptably low production growth rates, unfair distribution of income, etc. To obtain a holistic picture of the system being studied, the elements studied through analysis are combined into a single whole - thus, through synthesis, the researcher obtains a general idea of the phenomenon being studied.

Along with analysis and synthesis, theoretical studies widely use induction And deduction. With the help of induction, a transition is ensured from the study of individual facts to general conclusions and provisions. Deduction, on the contrary, allows you to move from general conclusions to relatively specific judgments. Based on the emerging patterns, it is possible to construct economic models - visual (in the form of graphs, diagrams, diagrams, tables) images of actually occurring events. For example, the identified patterns of market functioning in the presence of many small producers (sellers) of similar products provide a model of free, or perfect, competition. Analysis of interdependent prices, supply and demand allows us to present a graphical model of market equilibrium. The research continues by moving from the abstract to the concrete, when logical schemes, models, and conclusions are verified by the real economy. Practice acts as a criterion for the truth of theories and the viability of formulated laws.

In modern economic science it is widely used functional analysis, since the objects being studied, as a rule, are in a certain relationship with each other. If one variable, such as market demand, depends on another variable, such as the price of a product, then there is a functional relationship between them. When the price of a product decreases, the quantity demanded for it, or the number of sales, all other things being equal, increases. Demand is a function of price, and price is the independent variable, or argument. The expression “other things being equal” means that in this case The influence on demand of only one factor is considered - price, and all other factors (non-price), such as changes in the monetary income of the population or the impact of advertising on buyers, are not taken into account.

One of modern methods research and forecasting of economic processes is economic and mathematical modeling. It allows you to present the state of the economy, development options in the form of mathematical formulas, evaluate and compare costs by different options and present the predicted results and inevitable consequences of a particular choice.

The method of testing certain theoretical concepts or searching for the most effective ways to develop a company, industry, or region is economic experiments at micro and macro levels. It is important to carry them out within strictly regulated, reasonable limits, when the models being tested organically fit into the current economic environment and do not break historically developed and normally functioning socio-economic ties.

Basic functions of economic theory. Using the methods discussed, economic theory performs its main functions - cognitive, methodological, and practical. Cognitive function

economic theory consists of research, study of objective reality, in this case - the economic life of society at a certain stage, in the knowledge and characterization of the laws of functioning of economic systems, the causes and conditions of their origin and development. Being fundamental sciences, economic theories act as a methodological basis for all applied economic sciences, such as economics industrial enterprise, economy agriculture, financial management, logistics, etc. This shows methodological function economic theories. Practical function economic theories are carried out in interaction with economic policy. Receiving a social order, they formulate and reveal the essence of the economic problems that the country, industry, company faces, show the ways and necessary resources to overcome them, and thereby act theoretical basis economic policy.