Speaking about the most important role of facts in the development of science, V.I. Vernadsky wrote: “Scientific facts constitute the main content of scientific knowledge and scientific work. They, if correctly established, are indisputable and generally binding. Along with them, systems of certain scientific facts, the main form of which is empirical generalizations.
A fact is “an action, an incident, an event relating to the past or the still ongoing present, but never to the future; it is something real, non-fictional, as opposed to fantasy, fiction; it is something concrete and individual, as opposed to the abstract and general; finally, the concept of “fact” was transferred from one-time phenomena or events to processes, relationships, and sets of closely related phenomena..."
Facts are the fundamental foundation of science that distinguishes science from philosophy and religion. Neither philosophy nor religion creates such facts and generalizations.
Fact (lat. Factum - accomplished) - knowledge in the form of a statement, the reliability of which is strictly established.
A fact is something that happens (happened) to be.
A fact represents recorded empirical knowledge and acts as a synonym (i.e. identical or similar in meaning) to the concepts “event” and “result”.
A fact is a reliably established, non-fictional event or incident. A fact is a phenomenon that becomes known; an unknown phenomenon is not a scientific fact.
Facts in science not only serve as an information source and empirical basis for theoretical reasoning, but also serve as a criterion for their reliability and truth. In turn, the theory forms the conceptual basis of the fact: it highlights the aspect of reality being studied, sets the language in which the facts are described, and determines the means and methods of experimental research. The difficulty here lies in separating reliable facts from unreliable, apparent ones.
A scientific fact is not only a description of an event or a measured value, but also many other information: when, how, by whom the fact was recorded, with what other events, facts, studies it is connected, and so on.
A scientific fact is one certified by science and social practice a fragment of knowledge reflecting the properties of the material and spiritual world.
The concept of “scientific fact” is much broader and more multifaceted than the concept of “fact” used in everyday life. When they talk about scientific facts, they understand them as elements that form the basis of scientific knowledge, reflecting the objective properties of things and processes. Based on scientific facts, patterns of phenomena are determined, theories are constructed and laws are derived.
A scientific fact is an event or phenomenon that is the basis for a conclusion or confirmation. It is an element that forms the basis of scientific knowledge. An observational fact is a two-part statement. A description of a fact is a description of what can be observed under certain conditions and the conditions of observation are a description of the conditions under which it is possible to observe what is described in the first part of the statement.
Scientific facts are characterized by such properties as novelty, accuracy and objectivity and reliability
Let us consider the characteristic features of these properties.
The novelty of a scientific fact speaks of a fundamentally new, hitherto unknown subject, phenomenon or process. This is not necessarily a scientific discovery, but it is new knowledge about something that we did not know until now.
The great educational significance of new scientific facts requires consideration and critical assessment of their effectiveness. In some cases, knowledge of new facts expands our understanding of reality; in others, it enriches our possibilities for changing it; thirdly, it alarms and forces people to be vigilant so that new knowledge about the nature of things does not harm people.
The accuracy of a scientific fact is determined by objective methods and characterizes the totality of the most significant features of objects, phenomena, events, their quantitative and qualitative definitions.
When selecting facts, you must be scientifically objective. Facts cannot be thrown aside just because they are difficult to explain or find. practical use. In fact, the essence of what is new in science is not always clearly visible to the researcher himself. New scientific facts, sometimes quite large, because their meaning is poorly understood, can for a long time remain in the reserve of science and not be used in practice.
The reliability of a scientific fact characterizes its unconditional real existence, confirmed when constructing similar situations. If there is no such confirmation, then there is no reliability of the scientific fact. The reliability of scientific (facts) largely depends on the reliability of primary sources, on their purpose and the nature of their information. Obviously, an official publication published on behalf of government or public organizations, institutions and departments, contains materials the accuracy of which should not raise doubts.
18. Scientific theory as a form of scientific knowledge.
Scientific theory is the highest form of organization of scientific knowledge, giving a holistic idea of the patterns and essential connections of the area of reality being studied.
A scientific theory is a system of logically interrelated statements, contains an evidence-based mechanism for constructing knowledge, embodies a specific research program, which ensures the integrity of the theory as a unified system of knowledge.
From a methodological point of view, a scientific theory should strive for maximum completeness and adequacy of description, integrity and deducibility of provisions from each other, and internal consistency.
The components of a scientific theory are the empirical basis (facts obtained during the experiment), theoretical basis(postulates, laws that describe idealized objects), the logic of the theory (rules of logical inference and proof), the totality of the obtained statements and results.
Scientific theories differ in the nature of the problems they solve, as well as in the methods of construction and types of procedures implemented. In this regard, scientific theories are divided into descriptive, mathematized, and deductive.
Examples of the first type of descriptive (empirical) theories are the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, the physiological theory of I. Pavlov, most modern psychological theories, traditional linguistic theories, etc.
The second type consists of scientific theories that actively use the apparatus and models of mathematics. This type of theories includes theoretical physics, genetics, mathematical linguistics, etc.
The third type is deductive theoretical systems. The need to construct them was led by the problem of substantiating mathematics.
A scientific theory is subject to a number of requirements: adequacy to the object being described, completeness of description of the aspect of reality being studied, interrelation various elements theories and their internal consistency and, of course, compliance with experimental data.
The functions of scientific theory are: descriptive, explanatory, predictive and synthesizing:
The descriptive function is associated with the establishment of empirical and experimental laws, since any theory gives a description of the field of knowledge being studied, for example, the theory of relativity describes the movement of objects at high speeds, and the theory of elementary particles describes the structure of the microworld. In addition to describing the objects of the corresponding subject area, the theory explains their genesis, composition, structure, and functions. For example, theory natural selection Charles Darwin explains the reasons and mechanisms of adaptation of living organisms to environmental conditions.
Thanks to the predictive function, the theory becomes practically significant; it contributes to the prediction of new phenomena that have not yet been discovered or described by science (for example, geological theories lead to the discovery of mineral deposits, new space objects, etc.).
The synthesizing function of a theory is to organize a huge mass of empirical material, all kinds of theoretical constructs, hypotheses, etc. The synthesizing function contributes to the fact that the theory of one scientific field can influence other, related fields of knowledge and, in general, the style of scientific thinking of a particular era.
Question 1. What is the main goal of science?
The main goal of science is to study and understand the world around us.
Question 2. What is scientific method? What is its main principle?
Scientific method- a set of basic ways to obtain new knowledge and methods for solving problems within the framework of any science. The basic principle of the scientific method is to take nothing for granted. Any statement or refutation of something should be verified.
Question 3. What is a scientific experiment?
Science experiment(lat. experimentum- test, experiment) - a method of studying a certain phenomenon under controlled conditions, with the help of which phenomena are studied under specially created and controlled conditions. An indispensable condition for the experiment is that it must be accompanied by a control experiment, the conditions of which differ from the experimental conditions by only one factor. It can be argued that the experiment is not at all limited to just conducting an experiment and obtaining initial information, but consists of stages, each of which combines elements of sensory, practical and theoretical knowledge in its own way. These include the following: 1) preparatory, 2) stage of conducting the experiment and obtaining experimental data; 3) stage of processing experimental data, or final. Analysis of the structural features of experimental research helps to reveal its nature from an epistemological point of view, that is, from the position of the relationship between the object and the subject of cognitive activity.
A distinctive feature of a scientific experiment is the possibility of its repetition by other researchers.
Question 4. What fact can be considered scientific?
Scientific fact- this is the result obtained through repeated observations and experiments. A scientific fact is the starting point of scientific research. Based on scientific facts, the properties and patterns of phenomena are determined, theories and laws are derived.
Question 5. How does a hypothesis differ from a law or theory?
Hypothesis(hypotesis) - An assumption requiring scientific proof, a preliminary explanation of the problem, based on existing knowledge and experience. Testing and confirming a hypothesis means a transition from assumption to new knowledge about the phenomenon being studied. If the hypothesis passes the test empirical methods, it acquires the status of law. Law (natural law, or law of nature) describes the unchanging regularities that occur in nature. Thus, a law is a factually proven statement (within the framework of a theory, concept, hypothesis) that explains objective facts; or a certain phenomenon that has generality and repeatability and is recorded and described. The properties of the law are the periodicity and universality of any class of phenomena, i.e. the need for their occurrence under certain, precisely formulated conditions.
Question 6. What is the role of applied and basic research in science?
Fundamental and applied research differ primarily in their goals and objectives. Fundamental scientific research allows us to understand the laws that underlie the development of nature.
When considering applied research and science, emphasis is often placed on the application of scientific results to the solution of well-defined technical and technological problems. The main task of these studies is considered as the direct development of certain technical systems and processes. The development of applied sciences is related to the solution practical problems, has in mind the needs of practice. Thus, biological knowledge is the basis for practical achievements in medicine, agriculture, industry, solving environmental problems.
Question 1. What is the main goal of science?
The main goal of science is to study and understand the world around us.
Question 2: What is the scientific method? What is its main principle?
The scientific method is a set of techniques and operations used in constructing a system of scientific knowledge.
The basic principle of the scientific method is to take nothing for granted. Any statement or refutation of something should be verified.
Question 3. What is a scientific experiment?
A scientific experiment is one of the methods of cognition, with the help of which phenomena are studied under specially created and controlled conditions. An indispensable condition of the experiment is that it must be accompanied by a control experiment, the conditions of which differ from the experimental conditions by only one factor.
A distinctive feature of a scientific experiment is the possibility of its repetition by other researchers.
A scientific fact is a result obtained through repeated observations and experiments. A scientific fact is the starting point of scientific research.
Question 5. How does a hypothesis differ from a law or theory?
A hypothesis is a scientific assumption that explains the causes of a given set of phenomena. If a hypothesis can withstand testing by empirical methods, it acquires the status of a law. Law (natural law, or law of nature) describes the unchanging regularities that occur in nature. The properties of the law are the periodicity and universality of any class of phenomena, i.e. the necessity of their occurrence under certain, precisely formulated conditions.
A set of several laws related to one area of cognition is called a theory. Often the terms “law” and “theory” are used interchangeably. Material from the site
Question 6. What is the role of applied and fundamental research in science?
Fundamental scientific research allows us to understand the laws that underlie the development of nature.
Applied science deals with those studies that are used in practice in various areas of human activity. Thus, biological knowledge is the basis for practical achievements in medicine, agriculture, industry, and solving environmental problems.
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3. What research methods used in biology do you know?
We usually say “scientific knowledge”, “scientific fact”, “scientific picture of the world”. What is the difference between scientific knowledge from the unscientific? What fact can be considered scientific?
Science is one of the ways to study and understand the world around us. Biology helps to understand the world of living nature.
We already know that people have been studying since ancient times wildlife. First, they studied individual organisms, collected them, and compiled lists of plants and animals that inhabit different places. Usually this period of study of living organisms is called descriptive, and the discipline itself is called natural history. Natural history is the predecessor of biology.
Each science has its own research methods.
However, no matter what methods are used, the most important principle for every scientist should remain the principle “Take nothing for granted.” This is the principle of refusing blind trust in authority.
The scientific method is a set of techniques and operations used in constructing a system of scientific knowledge.
Used in biology various methods, the most important of them include observation, experiment and comparison.
The primary source of all scientific data is accurate, careful, unbiased observation and experiment.
The results obtained from observations and experiments must be checked and rechecked by new observations and experiments. Only then can they be considered scientific facts.
For example, the media have repeatedly reported on the so-called “Bigfoot”, providing eyewitness accounts of encounters with him, sketches and photos supposedly his traces and even “ Bigfoot" Several expeditions were organized to search for Bigfoot. But so far no one has been able to provide either a living “Bigfoot”, or his remains, or any other irrefutable evidence of his existence. Therefore, despite numerous eyewitness accounts, the existence of Bigfoot cannot be recognized as a scientific fact.
Usually Scientific research begins with observation of an object or phenomenon. After summarizing the resulting data, hypotheses (assumptions) are put forward that can explain the observations.
At the next stage of the research, experiments are designed and conducted to test the hypotheses. A scientific experiment must necessarily be accompanied by a control experiment, the conditions of which are different. from the experimental conditions by one (and only one) factor. Analysis of the experimental results will allow you to decide which hypothesis is correct.
A hypothesis that has been tested and found to be consistent with the facts and capable of serving as the basis for correct predictions may be called a theory or law. By calling a provision a law, scientists seem to emphasize its universality, indisputability, and greater reliability. However, the terms “law” and “theory” are often used interchangeably.
Let us consider the stages of scientific research using the example of studying the conditions necessary for seed germination.
Observations of seeds have shown that they do not always germinate. Obviously, certain conditions are necessary for their germination.
So, we can formulate the research problem: What conditions are necessary for seed germination?
The next stage is generating hypotheses. We can assume that for seeds to germinate, they need light, darkness, water, a certain temperature, air, and soil.
Now, in order to check what conditions are really necessary for seed germination, we will develop and conduct an experiment.
Let's take six samples of 100 seeds of one species, for example corn, and place them in conditions that differ in only one characteristic.
Place the vessel with the first sample in a bright, warm place. Pour water into the vessel so that it covers the seeds halfway. In this case, air will freely penetrate to the seeds.
We will place the second sample of seeds in the same conditions as the first, but fill the vessel to the top with boiled water, thus depriving the seeds of air.
We will place the vessel with the third sample in the same conditions as the first, but in a warm place.
In the fourth vessel we will leave seeds dry.
We will keep the fifth sample at a temperature of +1 °C.
Fill the sixth vessel with moist soil and place it in a warm place.
After analyzing the results of the experiment, we come to the conclusion that light and the soil are not necessary conditions for seed germination. Corn seeds germinate in the presence of water, air and a certain temperature. However, if we carefully look at our samples, we will see that even with favorable conditions The first seeds have sprouted. Having studied these seeds, we find out that their embryo is dead. Consequently, only seeds with a living embryo can germinate.
If you compare the conditions necessary for the germination of plant seeds different types, then make sure that they are very different. For example, for the germination of corn grains, water will require half their own weight, and for the germination of clover, water should be one and a half times the weight of the seeds. At the same time, clover seeds germinate at a temperature of +1 °C, corn - at temperatures above +8 °C, and for melon seeds the germination temperature will be +15 °C. You will also find that most seeds germinate as if in the light , and in the dark, but there are plants (for example, tobacco, string), for the germination of seeds, light is necessary. On the contrary, small-fruited camelina seeds germinate only in the dark.
So, even the simplest scientific research requires a clearly thought out and carefully conducted experiment, on the basis of which scientifically reliable conclusions can be drawn. When conducting observations and experiments, use the most modern devices, equipment, instruments - electron microscopes, radars, chromatographs, etc.
Life is amazingly diverse.
To understand this diversity, it is necessary to identify and organize the codes and differences in living organisms. To solve these problems, the comparative method is used. It allows you to compare the results of observations to identify general patterns.
Biologists also use other research methods. For example, the descriptive method was widely used by ancient scientists, but has not lost its importance today.
The historical method helps to comprehend the obtained facts by comparing them with previously known results.
In science, any new discoveries help eliminate previous misconceptions and point out relationships between phenomena. In biology, new discoveries create the basis for many practical advances in medicine, agriculture, industry and other areas of human activity.
Many people believe that only biological research should be done that will help solve specific practical problems. today. Of course, the development of applied sciences has a very important, but we must not forget about the importance of research in “pure” science. The knowledge gained in fundamental research may seem useless for everyday human life, but it helps to understand the laws by which the world around us develops, and will almost certainly sooner or later find practical application.
Scientific research. Scientific fact. Observation. Hypothesis. Experiment. Law. Theory.
1. What is the main goal of science?
2. What is the scientific method? What is its main principle?
3. What is a scientific experiment?
4. What fact can be considered scientific?
5. How does a hypothesis differ from a law or theory?
6. What is the role of applied and basic research in science?
Kamensky A. A., Kriksunov E. V., Pasechnik V. V. Biology 9th grade
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