The throne was inherited by Henry and Jane's son Edward IV (1537-1553). A responsible and well-read young man would have made a good monarch, but Edward was in poor health and died at the age of 15. At the instigation of the nobleman John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, Edward bequeathed the crown to his cousin Lady Jane Gray (Dudley promptly married his son to her). Contrary to her wishes, Lady Jane was proclaimed queen, but nine days later she was overthrown by her rightful heir, Mary Tudor (1516-1558). Under Mary, the Reformation in England turned 180 degrees: a devout Catholic made every effort to restore Catholicism in her power. Since Protestantism had not yet taken root, the British calmly accepted the return of the Latin Mass. But Mary’s intention to marry the Spanish Prince Philip alerted them. The Queen was fascinated by Philip, but the twenty-seven-year-old Spaniard was not attracted to the withered virgin (38 years old by those standards was already a respectable age).
Quite soon, he began to flirt with her ladies-in-waiting, and then left his wife completely, returning to his native Spain. Suffering from loneliness and the inability to get pregnant, Maria took it out on the heretics. Over 4 years, about 300 Protestants were burned. The Anglican Bishop Latimer was right when he proclaimed from the scaffold; “Today we will light a candle that will never go out.” With her atrocities, Mary earned the nickname “Bloody,” and her subjects finally hated Catholicism—you can’t force yourself to be nice. The end of Mary's reign was overshadowed both by the loss of Calais, England's last possession on French soil, and by personal drama: the illness that she mistook for a long-awaited pregnancy turned out to be uterine cancer. "Bloody Mary" was succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth, whose reign the British call "golden" century." It was the era of poets and playwrights (Shakespeare's star rose), shrewd politicians and brave pirates. In her childhood and adolescence, Elizabeth suffered many hardships - the death of her mother on the chopping block, her father’s decision to recognize her as illegitimate, the execution of her stepfather Thomas Seymour, Catherine Parr’s fourth husband.
In 1554, the suspicious Mary kept her younger sister in prison for a couple of months, and then exiled her to Oxfordshire. The death of Mary was a gift of fate for Elizabeth. The new queen was not at all like her withdrawn sister, who exhausted herself with fasts and vigils. Elizabeth turned out to be an active, wise and insightful woman, an inflexible politician and a witty interlocutor. She knew French, Italian, ancient Greek and Latin, was excellent in the saddle, adored grandiose balls, but at the same time she was distinguished by her economy. Only one feature of the queen caused concern - she was in no hurry to get married. Perhaps the injury received at court had an effect Henry VIII. Death from childbirth or on the scaffold, the situation of a thing that is brought to a show and sent away as unnecessary - this is the fate married woman. Elizabeth wanted to control her own destiny. In the end, the British accepted her choice and even admired the Virgin Queen, who was married to her state. Poets compared her to the chaste Diana, the goddess of the hunt, and sailors named the American colony of Virginia in her honor. The queen basked in the rays of popular love. Although Scotland also converted to Protestantism and became much closer to England than to its longtime ally France, Elizabeth did not trust the Scottish queen Mary Stuart (1542-1587). She remained faithful to Catholicism and considered herself the legitimate heir to the English throne. In 1567, Mary was deposed and fled to England for protection, but the presence of a high-born Catholic woman was too much of a temptation for the English “papists.” Elizabeth considered it reasonable to place Mary under arrest, and in 1587 she signed her death warrant. The main enemy of England remained Spain, the stronghold of Catholicism and the mistress of the seas. The Spaniards reacted nervously to the development of the English fleet, especially since England supported Francis Drake and other pirates who robbed Spanish ships. In 1588, a serious threat loomed over England: the “Invincible Armada,” 130 heavy ships, sailed to its shores. But the English ships, although not numerous, were distinguished by their maneuverability and gave a good beating to the clumsy Spanish ships. It seemed as if nature itself was protecting Britain: a powerful wind carried the Spanish ships north, away from the English shores.
The remnants of the Armada had to go around Scotland and Ireland, losing ships in storms and wrecks. The English were confident in God's protection and the power of their state. As soon as Elizabeth breathed her last, the messengers galloped at full speed to Scotland, where King James VI (1566-1625) was waiting for news. Ironically, Elizabeth’s successor was the son of Mary Stuart, who was executed by her: the Scottish king ascended to the English throne under the name James I. Opinions about the new monarch were divided. On the one hand, the British had difficulty understanding his accent and mocked his unkempt manners and unsightly appearance. In addition, Yakov showed homosexual tendencies. His favorite was George Villiers (1592-1628), the first Duke of Buckingham, and the whole country rejoiced when in 1628 the royal favorite fell victim to an assassination attempt (Alexandre Dumas very freely described this episode in The Three Musketeers). On the other hand, James maintained stability at home and abroad. One of the greatest achievements of his reign was the translation of the Bible into English, which was used by everyone for several centuries in a row. English speaking countries. The pious king dealt with both witches (under him, witchcraft trials flourished) and Catholics. In 1605, the Gunpowder Plot was uncovered to blow up Parliament and kill the king. In memory of the miraculous salvation of the monarch, every November 5 the British burn an effigy of Guy Fawkes, one of the participants in the conspiracy.
Defending the “divine right” of kings, James I quarreled with parliament, and his son Charles I (1600–1649) brought the conflict to a qualitative level new level. Timid and withdrawn, Charles did not get along well with those around him, with the exception of Buckingham, who managed to lose several important battles to the French. The British were even more upset by Charles's marriage to the French Catholic Henrietta Maria. Several times parliamentarians expressed their indignation to the monarch, until in 1629, tired of complaints, he dissolved parliament. For the next 11 years the king ruled alone, but in 1639 and 1640. was forced to convene the advisers again. The Crown needed funds for the war with Scotland, where a serious conflict broke out over the introduction of Anglican worship there (the Scots belonged to an even more strict branch of Protestantism - Presbyterianism). Taught by bitter experience, the parliamentarians were in no hurry to disperse. The Long Parliament began, the majority of which belonged to the Puritans, ardent opponents of any Catholic remnants (including such lovely customs as Christmas pudding and May Day festivities). In 1642, the confrontation between the king and parliament resulted in a civil war (in Soviet historiography it was called the “English bourgeois revolution”).
The war split the country: the west took the side of the king, while the east, including London, supported the “roundheads” (the soldiers of parliament received this nickname for their short haircuts). The leader of the rebels was the landowner from Cambridge Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), a brilliant military leader and unyielding politician. When the Scots defected to the camp of parliamentarians in 1644, Charles had to fight on two fronts, and the outcome civil war was a foregone conclusion. After the defeat at Marstonmoor, the king lost the north, and in 1646 surrendered to the Scots, who handed it over to the Parliamentarians a year later. In January 1649, Charles appeared in court on charges of crimes against the fatherland. Although the king denied to the last that he, God's anointed, could be judged by mere mortals, this did not stop Parliament from signing his death warrant. On a frosty January day, the king last time went to Whitehall Palace. In order not to shiver from the cold, he put on two undershirts in case onlookers would think that the monarch was shaking with fear. After his execution, England was proclaimed a republic, and in 1653 Cromwell was granted the title of Lord Protector.
(English Henry VIII; June 28, 1491, Greenwich - January 28, 1547, London) - King of England from April 22, 1509, son and heir of King Henry VII, second English monarch from the Tudor dynasty. With the consent of the Roman Catholic Church, the English kings were also called “Lords of Ireland”, but in 1541, at the request of Henry VIII, who was excommunicated from the Catholic Church, the Irish parliament gave him the title “King of Ireland”.
Henry VIII (Henry VIII). Hans Holbein (Hans Holbein the Younger)
Henry VIII was married six times.
His wives, each of whom stood behind a certain political or religious group, sometimes forced him to make changes in their political or religious views.
Henry VIII. Portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1536-37 
Catherine of Aragon (Spanish: Catalina de Aragón y Castilla; Catalina de Trastámara y Trastámara, English: Catherine of Aragon, also spelled Katherine or Katharine; December 16, 1485 - January 7, 1536) was the youngest daughter of the founders of the Spanish state, King Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. , first wife of King Henry VIII of England.
Portrait of his first wife Catherine of Aragon - cute woman's face, rather strong-willed, straight parting of hair hidden under a light brown cap; eyes downcast.
Brown dress, matching decoration - beads on the neck.
Catherine of Aragon, Dowager Princess of Wales. Portrait by Michel Sittow, 1503 
Catherine of Aragon arrived in England in 1501. She was 16 years old and was to become the wife of Crown Prince Arthur - the son of King Henry VII. Thus, the king wanted to protect himself from France and raise the authority of England among European states.
Arthur was only 14 years old at the time of his marriage. He was a sickly young man consumed by consumption. And a year after the wedding he died without leaving an heir.
Catherine remained in England as a young widow, and in fact as a hostage, because by that time her father had not yet managed to pay her dowry in full, and besides, it seemed, he had no intention of paying. She lived in such uncertainty for the next eight years.
She saw salvation in renunciation of worldly vanity and turning to God (she had nothing but the title of dowager princess, a small allowance and a retinue consisting exclusively of Spanish nobles who came with her. She was a burden both for the King of England Henry VII and for her father, King Ferdinand. Her mother, the brave Queen Isabella, died.
By the age of twenty, she indulged in severe asceticism - constant fasting and masses. One of the courtiers, fearing for her life, wrote to the Pope. And an order immediately came from him: stop self-torture, since it could be life-threatening.
In fact, the same state considerations as during the marriage of Catherine and Arthur contributed to the marriage of Henry, the youngest son of the King of England, and now the heir, to Catherine, who was six years older than the groom. Negotiations regarding their marriage began during the life of Henry VII and continued after his death. Catherine became Queen of England two months after Henry VIII's accession to the throne. However, before the wedding, Henry had to obtain permission from the Pope - Julius. Church law prohibited such marriages, but the Pope gave the English king special permission, largely because Catherine and Arthur never actually became husband and wife.
Official portrait of Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England. Unknown artist, ca. 1525 
Due to Catherine's lack of surviving sons, Henry insisted, after 24 years of marriage, on a divorce (more precisely, an annulment) in 1533. He never received the consent of either the Pope or Catherine. It was decided that from this moment on, the Pope's authority would not extend to England. Henry declared himself head of the Church (since 1534), and his marriage with Catherine was invalid.
This step became one of the reasons for Henry's conflict with the Pope, the break with the Roman Catholic Church and the reformation in England.
Mary I Tudor (1516-1558) - Queen of England from 1553, eldest daughter Henry VIII from his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Also known as Bloody Mary (or Bloody Mary), Catholic Mary.
Anthonis Mor. Mary I of England 
Master John. Portrait of Mary I, 1544 
In May 1533, Henry married Anne Boleyn (also spelled Bullen; c. 1507 - May 19, 1536, London) - the second wife (from January 25, 1533 until execution) of King Henry VIII of England. Mother of Elizabeth I.
Portrait of Anne Boleyn. Author unknown, 1534 
Anne Boleyn was Henry's unapproachable lover for a long time, refusing to become his mistress. She was crowned on June 1, 1533, and in September of the same year gave birth to his daughter Elizabeth, instead of the son expected by the king.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603), Queen Bess - Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 17 November 1558, last of the Tudor dynasty. She inherited the throne after the death of her sister, Queen Mary I.
William Scrots. Elizabeth I as a Princess (Elizabeth, daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn, future Queen Elizabeth I) 
The reign of Elizabeth is sometimes called the “golden age of England”, both in connection with the flourishing of culture (the so-called “Elizabethans”: Shakespeare, Marlowe, Bacon, etc.), and with the increased importance of England on the world stage (the defeat of the Invincible Armada, Drake, Raleigh, East India Company).
Portrait of Elizabeth I of England, c. 1575. Author unknown 
Anne Boleyn's subsequent pregnancies ended unsuccessfully. Soon Anna lost the love of her husband, was accused of adultery and beheaded in the Tower in May 1536.
Anne Boleyn. Portrait by an unknown artist, c. 1533-36 
Love letter from Henry VIII to his future second wife Anne Boleyn, in French, probably January 1528.
This letter was kept in the Vatican for five centuries; it was first exhibited in the British Library in London.
"From now on, my heart will belong only to you."
“The expression of your affection for me is so strong, and the beautiful words of your message are so heartfelt, that I am simply obliged to respect, love and serve you forever,” the king writes. “For my part, I am ready, if possible, to surpass you in loyalty and desire please you."
The letter ends with the signature: “G. loves A.B.” And
the initials of your beloved enclosed in a heart.
Jane Seymour (c. 1508 - 1537). She was Anne Boleyn's maid of honor. Henry married her a week after the execution of his previous wife. She died a few days later from childbed fever. The mother of Henry's only surviving son, Edward VI (English: Edward VI, October 12, 1537 - July 6, 1553) - King of England and Ireland from January 28, 1547). In honor of the birth of the prince, an amnesty was declared for thieves and pickpockets, and the cannons in the Tower fired two thousand volleys.
Portrait of Jane Seymour by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1536-37 
Portrait of Edward VI. Works by Hans Eworth, 1546 
Anna of Cleves (1515-1557). Daughter of Johann III of Cleves, sister of the reigning Duke of Cleves. Marriage to her was one of the ways to cement the alliance of Henry, Francis I and the German Protestant princes. As a prerequisite for marriage, Henry wanted to see a portrait of the bride, for which Hans Holbein the Younger was sent to Kleve. Heinrich liked the portrait and the engagement took place in absentia. But Henry categorically did not like the bride who arrived in England (unlike her portrait). Although the marriage was concluded in January 1540, Henry immediately began to look for a way to get rid of his unloved wife. As a result, already in June 1540 the marriage was annulled; The reason was Anne's pre-existing engagement to the Duke of Lorraine. In addition, Henry stated that there was no actual marital relationship between him and Anna. Anne remained in England as the King's "sister" and outlived both Henry and all his other wives. This marriage was arranged by Thomas Cromwell, for which he lost his head.
Anna Klevskaya. Portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1539 
Anna Klevskaya. Portrait by Bartholomeus Brain the Elder, early 1540s. 
Catherine Howard (more correctly Catherine Howard English. Catherine Howard, born 1520/1525 - died February 13, 1542). Niece of the mighty Duke of Norfolk, cousin Anne Boleyn. Henry married her in July 1540 out of passionate love. It soon became clear that Catherine had a lover before marriage (Francis Durham) and cheated on Henry with Thomas Culpepper. The perpetrators were executed, after which the queen herself ascended the scaffold on February 13, 1542.
Portrait of Catherine Howard. Hans Holbein Junior 
Catherine Parr (born about 1512 - died September 5, 1548) was the sixth and last wife of King Henry VIII of England. Of all the queens of England, she was in the largest number of marriages - besides Henry, she had three more husbands). By the time of her marriage to Henry (1543), she had already been widowed twice. She was a convinced Protestant and did a lot for Henry’s new turn to Protestantism. After Henry's death, she married Thomas Seymour, Jane Seymour's brother.
Portrait of Catherine Parr. Master John, ca. 1545. National Portrait Gallery in London 
Portrait of Catherine Parr. William Scrots, ca. 1545 
The colorful figure of the English king Henry VIII Tudor (1491-1547) has long attracted the attention of not only educated readers, professional historians and writers, but also psychiatrists and physicians. The task of unraveling this most colorful personality of the 16th century is too attractive. Perhaps science is finally closer to revealing the secrets of the English monarch, famous for his polygamy and the Reformation, which ended in a quarrel with the Pope and the proclamation of Henry as the head of the Anglican Church.
Henry VIII Tudor
In 1993, the Oxford historian Vivian Hubert Howard Green's book "Mad Kings" was published, where in the chapter dedicated to Henry ("Big Harry") there is the following conclusion: "Whereas, obviously, it would be absurd assert that the personality of Henry VIII displays the disturbed genes of the mad French king and shows signs of mental and emotional imbalance." The author implies that big Harry was the great-great-grandson of the schizophrenic French king Charles VI. So, maybe all the shortcomings are not in the genes, but in the blood? As Goethe rightly noted, “blood is a juice of a very special nature.”
Eighteen years later his colleagues published in the Cambridge Historical Bulletin Historical Journal the results of your research. Bioarchaeologist Catrina Banks Whitley, a graduate student at Southern Methodist University (USA), and anthropologist Kyra Kramer argue that the repeated miscarriages that occurred among the king's wives could be due to what is in the king's blood. contained Kell antigen.
Let me remind you that Kell antigens (or Kell factors) are proteins found on the surface of red blood cells. There are about 24 of them, but the two most common are K and k. Moreover, almost all people have the latter, but the first is less common. Accordingly, depending on the presence or absence of it, people can be divided into three blood groups: Kell-positive (KK), Kell-neutral (Kk) and Kell-negative (kk). Among Europeans, representatives of the latter group are more common, but neutral and positive “Kellians” are extremely rare (according to some sources, there are only nine percent of them).
In principle, a woman who has only a negative Kell antigen in her blood can give birth to a healthy child from a man with a positive Kell antigen. However, during her first pregnancy, her body produces antibodies, which during subsequent pregnancies enter the placenta and attack the fetus with a positive Kell antigen. As a result, babies may suffer from excess tissue fluid, anemia, jaundice, an enlarged spleen or heart failure, often leading to miscarriage between 24 and 28 weeks of pregnancy. So much for the monarch's "blue blood"!
Catherine of Aragon was five years older than her husband. Their first child, a daughter, was stillborn. The second child, Henry, Prince of Wales, born in 1511, lived for seven weeks. The remaining four children were either stillborn or died immediately after birth. The only surviving child was Mary, born in 1516. She became Queen of England in 1553 and remained in history under the nickname Bloody.
They tried to explain the premature birth as a mental shock caused by the deterioration of relations between Henry and the queen's father. Allegedly, the monarch endlessly reproached Catherine for the betrayal of King Ferdinand of Aragon and “vented his discontent on her.”
In 1518, one of his wife's ladies-in-waiting, Elizabeth Blount, bore him a son, later Duke of Richmond. She was succeeded by Mary Boleyn, and then by her sister Anne, a sophisticated and well-read lady who “radiated sex.” It was the marriage with Anne Boleyn that became the reason for the “divorce” from the throne of St. Peter. The Pope did not grant a divorce to the lustful English autocrat from the legitimate Spanish princess. Being a stronghold of Catholicism, Henry personally wrote sharp objections to Luther's teachings. The English monarch rebelled against the dictates of Rome only after the pontiff refused to sanction his second marriage.
On January 29, 1536, Anna miscarried a male infant. It was even suggested that the fetus was probably a freak. Henry allowed himself to be convinced that Anna had bewitched him in order to marry her. Boleyn, in turn, explained the miscarriage by the shock she experienced at the news she received about Henry's fall at the knightly tournament. Anna was worried not only for her husband’s life, but also because her husband loved not her, but his new passion, Jane Seymour.
If Henry was also sick with McLeod's syndrome, then this is the reason for the dramatic physical and psychological changes in the physical and moral appearance of Henry VIII. McLeod syndrome is a genetic disease characteristic of people with a positive K antigen, affecting the X chromosome. This disease is typical for men and appears from the age of 40. Accompanied by symptoms such as heart disease, movement disorders and underlying psychological symptoms, including paranoia and weakened mental abilities.
There is no written record of other symptoms consistent with McLeod syndrome. There is no evidence of prolonged muscle contractions (tics, spasms or cramps) or abnormal increases in muscle activity (hyperfunction). However, scientists believe that significant psychological metamorphoses also speak in favor of their diagnosis: Henry's mental and emotional instability increased significantly in the years before his death. Researchers tend to diagnose it as psychosis.
In the early years of his reign (Henry was anointed king in 1509), the second of the Tudors on the throne was distinguished by his handsome appearance, enormous energy and endowed with charisma. Humanists had high hopes for this versatile educated man, a brilliant athlete and player, as well as a gifted musician. Henry's ill health was later attributed to poor nutrition, which resulted in him developing scurvy and scurvy. In the 1540s, the king had already gained so much weight that he could not go up and down the stairs and had to be lifted and lowered using special devices.
“He ate too much meat, often with spices or in winter with pickles, too little fruit and fresh vegetables, and therefore suffered from an acute deficiency of ascorbic acid or vitamin C,” stated Vivian Green. “It seems that the features of his illness are quite consistent with the characteristic symptoms of scurvy : ulceration of the leg with rapidly spreading tumors, pain and wounds, bad breath, fatigue, difficulty walking, shortness of breath, swelling, red complexion, irritability and depression And yet Henry was certainly not the only one of his contemporaries who was ill. due to poor nutrition."
It was also assumed that Henry VIII had diabetes, syphilis and extensive gout. However, all these diagnoses are unproven. Neither he nor his children showed signs of syphilis, and there is no mention in the records of the use of then-current drugs against this venereal disease, such as mercury.
Before the general public had time to get acquainted with the results of the study of two American women, criticism against them was not long in coming. Retha Warnicke of Arizona State University, author of The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn: Family Politics at the Trial of Henry VIII, said that without analysis of genetic material there is hardly any chance of finding out the truth.
The large number of miscarriages in the family of the English monarch may be explained by other factors. Up to late XIX For centuries, midwives had no idea about basic hygiene. For this reason, in the time of Henry VIII, up to half of all children died before reaching adolescence. Dramatic changes in the king's personality can be explained by physical inactivity - lack of movement, rabid appetite, which led to obesity and related diseases.
In general, a remarkable surge of scientific thought (the guess about blood) is again extinguished by traditionalists with “mossy” ideas about the mental disorder of the sovereign.
Known for his numerous marriages, Henry VIII, King of England (1491-1547) was, nevertheless, a very enlightened ruler for his time, so professional historians tend to view him as a reformer and polygamist.
In the pantheon of British monarchs, Henry (ruled the country from 1509 to 1547) represents the Tudor royal family. Youngest son The first of the Tudors, Henry VII, this king in his first marriage was content with the wife Catherine of Aragon who passed on to him from his elder brother Arthur.
Arthur turned out to be unable to conduct the affairs of the state, was bedridden and practically did not touch his wife.
Therefore, when he died of a fever in 1502, an agreement was concluded between the courts of England and Spain, with the greatest permission of Pope Julius II, for the second marriage of the Spanish princess. Thus began the history of Henry 8’s marriages, in which wives replaced one another.
Enlightened mind, selfish disposition
Unlike his brother, Henry 8 had excellent health and excellent physique, was known in England as a wonderful horseman and an accurate archer. Therefore, his coronation aroused joyful hopes among the royal circle.
Henry was the direct opposite of his melancholy and sickly father. Therefore, from the very beginning of his reign, the capital of England became a place where noisy balls, cheerful masquerades and numerous tournaments replaced each other at the court.
Despite the exorbitant expenses, Henry 8 was loved by the public. He had a free and enlightened mind, spoke Spanish, Italian, French and in Latin, and from musical instruments loved the lute.
Unfortunately, like any other king, he was vicious and despotic, and his selfishness and selfishness knew no bounds.
However, Henry was lazy in carrying out his royal affairs, and always entrusted their execution to his favorites.
First lessons of political games
The new British king received his first political baptism in 1513, when the German Emperor Maximilian and his daughter Margaret involved English troops in a conflict with France. Henry8 invaded the enemy's possessions, and the siege of Terouan-ni followed.
Meanwhile German troops, uniting in one effort with the combat units of England, won a victory at Gingat, and Henry8 took possession of Tournai. However, the very next year of hostilities, his German ally, in agreement with Ferdinand of Spain, betrayed the British king and signed peace with Louis XII.
The unbalanced and impulsive king of England fell into anger, but immediately initiated the Anglo-French negotiations, marrying his sister Mary to the monarch of France.
After this object lesson Henry 8 perfectly grasped the very essence of politics, and since then treachery has become distinctive feature this king.
Contrary to Christian morality. Anne Boleyn
Henry used the same methods in theology. In 1522, the pope received a pamphlet he had written, where the reformers were criticized. However, the king soon “changed his shoes”: for 20 years of marriage, Catherine did not give birth to an heir, several illegitimate children of Henry 8 could not lay claim to the throne, and by that time, Catherine’s maid of honor Anna Boleyn had become the subject of the king’s passion.
Contrary to the norms of Christian morality, without the permission of the pope, Henry divorced, at the same time declaring himself the head of the British church.
He initiated the adoption by Parliament of a number of resolutions, according to which England broke ties with the Roman Church.
Having assumed the rights of the head of the Church of Britain, Henry 8 appoints Thomas Cranmer to the post of Archbishop of Canterbury (1533). A few months later, grateful for his appointment, Cranmer announced that marriage union the king no longer has legal force.
It only took a few days for the loving and full-of-life Henry 8 to crown Anne Boleyn, adding her to the list, which will henceforth include more and more new wives.
Official Rome tried to object to such blasphemy. However, the treacherous Henry, in defiance of such discontent, declared that his first marriage was invalid, and not only deprived his legitimate daughter Maria of all rights to the throne, but also imprisoned him in a monastery.
Repressions and new political games
It is clear that many in England did not approve of such actions. However, Henry 8 undertook repressions unprecedented at that time against the oppositionists, the result of which was the subordination of the English clergy to the morals of the king.
One of the results of such “purges” was Cromwell’s actions against the opposition from among the monastic orders. Acting on behalf of Henry, he insisted that English monks took a new oath- recognizing the supremacy of the king as the head of the national church and at the same time refusing obedience to Rome.
As expected, the monastic orders began to resist, their leaders were hanged, and as a result a document appeared transferring their property to the state (1536).
Moreover, we were talking about a fairly substantial share of property, which was previously owned by 376 monasteries, and now passed into the possession of Henry 8.
Execution of the adulterous Anna. Marry Jane Seymour
At the same time, significant changes have emerged on the love front for the aging monarch of England. Anne Boleyn did not manage to stay on the throne for long.
Moreover, the reason for this was frivolous behavior, incompatible with the status of the wife of Henry 8. Almost immediately, as soon as the wedding took place, The new queen has attracted young fans. This did not escape the attention of the suspicious Heinrich, who, in turn, retained less and less affection for his half, and then became completely carried away by the new woman.
Now all the attention of the first person of England was attracted by the beauty Jane Seymour. And Anna’s indiscretion at the tournament in May 1536 was the last straw of Henry 8’s patience (or maybe this was the reason he was looking for for the final break).
The king's wife, who was sitting in the royal box, dropped her handkerchief, and the handsome courtier Norris, who was passing by, picked it up from the ground, and did this so imprudently that this act caught the eye of her husband.
The enraged Henry the very next day sanctioned the arrests of his wife, her brother Lord Rochester and several of Anne's suitors, who were suspected of committing adultery with her.
All this was presented as a secret plot to overthrow the king, as well as behavior incompatible with the name of the queen.
As a result of torture and interrogation, in particular, of the musician Smithton (he amused the queen by playing Henry's favorite instrument, the lute), evidence incriminating Anna was obtained. Twenty peers gathered at a meeting of the commission of inquiry on May 17, who found her guilty and decided to put her to death.
Three days later the sentence was carried out, and the cheerful Henry 8 married Jane Seymour the very next day. According to contemporaries, she remained in memory as a quiet, meek, submissive girl, who needed the crown least of all in her life.
The king's happiness was short-lived; 15 months later England said goodbye to Jane, who died, but managed to give birth to Henry's heir son Edward.
Reformism. Anna Klevskaya
Now the king began to understand that, having declared himself the first clergyman of England, he must carry out reforms in church teaching. The year 1536 was fateful for the British Catholic system.
Two years later, Henry 8 carried out the alienation in favor of the state of property that previously belonged to large monasteries. Money poured into the treasury like a wide river, and the king strengthened his fleet and ground forces at their expense.
In addition, the borders of England and Ireland were fortified with harbors and fortresses.
Thus, by starting the reformation of the church, Henry thereby laid a solid foundation for the future power of England.
The reforms were so severe that within 17 recent years the king's stay on the throne was executed by his courtiers, burned or rotted in orderly prisons 70 thousand disobedient church workers.
At the same time, the despot began to think about a fourth marriage. The list, which included his wives, was replenished with Anna, daughter of the Duke of Cleves (the marriage treaty was signed in 1539).
However, having previously known her only from her portrait, Henry 8 was disappointed in his choice: the new Anna turned out to be a “Flemish mare”. He was married to her on January 6, 1540, and on July 9 a divorce followed: they say that the bride he got was not a virgin.
They didn’t execute Henry’s next passion, they let him good content and was rewarded with an estate.
Catherine Gotward and Catherine Parr
And by that time, the resilient Henry 8 was already in love again: Katherine Gotward became the next candidate for his wife. Despite the 30-year age difference, the king married her as soon as 3 weeks had passed since his divorce from “Anna number two.”
Alas, this time too, Henry’s wife (the fifth in a row) turned out to be of very frivolous behavior.
The evidence of betrayal presented to him was so upsetting that the monarch sobbed right during the meeting of the council that had gathered on this occasion.
The traitor was beheaded in February 1542, and a year and a half later... England learned about the new marriage of its monarch. This time the object of his interest was the 30-year-old widow Catherine Parr.
For Henry it was a quiet haven in which he could calmly meet old age. Unfortunately, new image life did not benefit him, and he died of obesity, unable to walk independently.
One of the most prominent political figures of the 16th century is undoubtedly the King of England Henry VIII (1491-1547). He ruled the country for almost 38 years. For this long period time, he proved himself to be a despotic and cruel ruler. It was under him that the “vagrancy law” was adopted. Ruined peasants who lost their property were simply hanged. It was much easier than helping people get back on their feet and regain material wealth.
To serve his personal interests, this king broke all relations with the Roman Catholic Church. He declared himself head of the English Church. Monasteries were closed and their lands were confiscated. Part went to the state, and the other was sold to the nobles. The Bible in the country was recognized only English. But from the point of view of Catholics, the ruler of Foggy Albion became famous not only for these terrible sacrileges.
He was extremely loving. Only His Majesty had 6 official wives. At the same time, two of them had their heads cut off. That is, the person did not know how to restrain himself in anything. He indulged his passions and desires, which he put above the interests of the state. His actions were often inconsistent and his actions contradictory. The king did not bet on a penny human life. Under him, people were executed for the slightest offense.
In 1577, the work of the English chronicler Raphael Holinshed was published entitled “Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland.” It said that during the reign of the extravagant king, 72 thousand people were executed in England. The torture of the Holy Inquisition and oprichnina pale in comparison to this figure. However, we will not take on faith everything that was written in the works of people who lived in the 16th century. Many of them were biased towards the cruel ruler and could biasedly reflect the true state of affairs.
Brief biography of Henry VIII
Was born future king England June 28, 1491. Place of birth - Greenwich. At that time it was a suburb of the British capital. It was not yet the prime meridian. This became the case in the 17th century, when the Greenwich Observatory was established in 1675.
The father of the newborn child was the English king Henry VII (1457-1509) - the founder of the Tudor dynasty. Mother was Elizabeth of York (1466-1503). In total, this woman gave birth to 7 children, but only 4 of them survived. Two daughters became queens, and a son became king. There was also the eldest son Arthur (1486-1502), who was supposed to ascend to the English throne. But he died at the age of 15 while his father was still alive.
As a result of all this, Henry VIII became king of England in 1509. At that time the young man was 17 years old. Therefore, at first, more mature courtiers helped him in conducting state affairs. In fact, from 1515 to 1529 the country was ruled by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (1473-1530). The king listened to his advice, although in some matters he showed independence. In 1529, he ordered the arrest of a powerful courtier. The time has come for independent rule, and " gray cardinal"began to interfere.
Since 1512, the young king waged war with France. The hostilities continued for many years. Only in 1525 was a peace treaty signed. But he did not bring victory to England, and the state treasury was practically empty. During these same years, the country was filled with impoverished peasants as a result of the policy fencing.
In the country, arable land belonged to the nobles, the church and the king. The peasants were not owners. They paid rent and managed land plots. The rent was purely symbolic, and people quietly worked on the land, sowing and harvesting crops. But, starting from the 15th century, there was an increase in wool prices on the world market. It became profitable to keep sheep, but they needed pastures.
As a result, landowners began to increase rents. The peasants could no longer pay for land plots, since the amounts of money were very high and exceeded the profit for the harvest. As a result of this, thousands of peasant families were ruined and turned into beggars. And the feudal lords fenced off the vacated lands and turned them into pastures for sheep. This is where the term “enclosure” came from, and in 1516 Thomas More immortalized the famous phrase in his Utopia: “Sheep eat men.”
Vagrants were caught and hanged, as if they themselves were to blame for their poverty. This showed the cruel character of the King of England. And his extravagance resulted in a conflict with the Catholic Church. The reason was trivial. The king needed a divorce from his wife because she could not give birth to a male heir.
This unfortunate woman was Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536). In 1510 she gave birth healthy boy, but he died before reaching 2 months. In 1516, the woman gave birth to a daughter, the future Queen Mary the Bloody. But England needed a boy heir. In 1518, Catherine gave birth again. But a girl was born who lived only a few hours. After this, the woman no longer tried to give birth.
In 1527, the king wished to divorce his wife. But I resisted catholic church who did not want to give a divorce. Then the crown bearer declared himself head of the English church and divorced his wife. This happened in 1533 on May 23, and on May 28 the king’s new wife came out to the people. She became Anne Boleyn (1507-1536). She also gave birth to a daughter, and then she was accused of betraying her husband and was beheaded in May 1536.
After this sad event, the crowned lady married 4 more times. The third wife, Jane Seymour (1508-1537), gave birth to an heir. They named him Edward. But the woman herself died of childbed fever, and the boy left this world at the age of 15.
The last 10 years of Henry VIII's reign were characterized by tyrannical forms of government. In 1542, the king's 5th wife, Catherine Howard (1521-1542), was executed. Many noble nobles who were members of the political opposition also went to the chopping block. The situation was aggravated by illness.
The crown bearer has gained a lot of weight. There is speculation that he suffered from gout. Old wounds received in previous years while hunting began to make themselves felt. All this caused irritation and depression. Every day the king felt worse and worse. At the age of 55 he died. It happened on January 28, 1547 in London at the famous Whitehall Palace. This majestic structure was considered the largest in Europe. Burnt down in 1698. After the death of the ruler, the country experienced troubled times until the Virgin Queen Elizabeth I came to power in 1558.
