Urartu and Transcaucasia. Cimmerians and Scythians

The ancient state of Urartu occupied a significant territory in the southwestern regions of Asia, today there are lands of modern Armenia, as well as parts of Turkey and Iran. The tribal union was formed in the 13th century BC, only in the 8th century. before the birth of Christ it turned into an independent state.

Initially, the civilization of Urartu was heterogeneous. Speaking about the origin of its inhabitants, modern historians mean the origin of a tribe that achieved a dominant position in the region and used the Urartian language. The first mention of Urartu was found in the records of the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser I. Assyria more than once dragged Urartu into long wars, which in most cases were won by the Assyrians. However, they did not seize these lands; their main goal was plunder. Assyrian sources often call the inhabitants of Urartu “nairi”, apparently, this is what all the inhabitants of this state were called. Moreover, in those days such a phrase as “kings of Nairi” was often found, which is evidence of the disunity of Urartu.

King of the State of Urartu
Culture of Urartu
People of Urartu
Art of Urartu
Gods and religion of Urartu

Modern scientists are convinced that it was Assyria that contributed to the fact that the civilization of Urartu united into a single political force. Constant raids from their southern neighbors forced local residents to look for ways to protect themselves. The nascent state was able to use rich natural resources for its development. The unification took a relatively long time; at the same time, the inhabitants of Urartu learned to build fortresses and fight wars. The first ruler here was Arama, but his rule was unsuccessful - the Assyrians, sensing the emergence of a force capable of resisting them in the north, struck and destroyed the first capital cities in the middle of the 9th century BC.

The ancient state of Urartu was able to take shape in 844 BC and was headed by Sarduri I, who built the capital city - Tushpa, located on the coast of Lake Van. On the approaches to Tushpa, he built many defensive fortresses. Then power here became centralized, and the first royal dynasty appeared here. This state had already ceased to be an easy prey for the Assyrians, and with the passage of time it became comparable to Assyria in strength.

The Kingdom of Urartu experienced its best years from the 9th century. to the middle of the 8th century. B.C. During the reign of Ishpuini, son of Sarduri I, Tushpa's power over the region strengthened and the boundaries of the state expanded. At the same time, all the gods of the united tribes were united into one pantheon; the main gods were recognized as Khaldi, Teisheba and Shivini, the tribes living in the center of the state. At the same time, the first cuneiform texts in the Urartian language appeared.

In 744 BC, Tiglath-Pileser III came to power in Assyria, reformed the army and began working to restore the greatness of his power. As a result, the Assyrians managed to regain control of the trade routes of the Middle East; already in 735, the troops of Urartu were completely defeated on the coast of the Euphrates. The Kingdom of Urartu lost a significant part of its lands during this period, but managed to survive it. However, even before the end of the 8th century BC. Urartu experienced a new devastating attack by the Assyrians; many cities were plundered, as well as Khaldi, the center of their religion.

7th century BC began with a truce between the two powers, in which Urartu was unable to restore its power. As a result, the Medes and Babylonians finally destroyed Assyria, and Urartu fell under the blows of the Scythians and Cimmerians. The last stronghold for Urartu was the Teishebaini fortress, built by King Rusa II on the Karmir-Blur hill. It is not known for certain who destroyed this city, but even before the end of the 7th century BC. Urartu ceased to appear in ancient Greek historical chronicles.

Urartu was one of the most powerful states of the Ancient World. In the 6th century BC it ceased to exist. However, some Armenians still consider themselves descendants of the Urartians.

On the Armenian Highlands

Urartu is an ancient state in South-West Asia, located on the territory of the Armenian Highlands. Urartu as a tribal union took shape already in the 13th century BC; mention of Urartu as a state is found in sources from the 8th century. For an entire quarter of the 1st millennium, Urartu was a significant force on the geopolitical map of the Ancient World. But, having experienced its heyday in the 9th-mid-8th centuries BC, by the 6th century BC the state had fallen into decline. It was caused by both external and internal factors.

Who are the Urartians

One might say, there was no such people as the Urartians. Throughout its history, the population of Urartu has been an intertribal community. The fragmentation of Urartian society was one of the reasons for the decline of Urartu as a state.
Currently, there is controversy in scientific circles about the succession of Armenia from Urartu. Urartu as a state, as we have already written, came to an end in the 6th century BC, at which time the ethnogenesis of the Armenians was only in the final stage of development.

Even in the 5th century BC, the population of the Armenian Highlands was heterogeneous and consisted of remnants of the Urartians, Proto-Armenians, Hurrians, Semites, Hittites and Luwians. Note that the Urartians are on this list, but there are also other peoples in it.

Undoubtedly, the genetic component of the Urartians is still present in the genetic code of the Armenians, but no more than the genetic component of the same Hurrians and Luwians, not to mention the proto-Armenians. The connection between the Armenians and the Urartians is evidenced by borrowings taken by the Armenian language from the Urartian and Hurrian dialects. It must also be recognized that the Armenians also experienced the cultural influence of the once powerful state.

Language of Urartu

The language of Urartu was not homogeneous and was used by the ruling dynasty. All found sources of Urartian writing tell about kings and their glorious exploits. Linguists see a connection between both the Urartian and Hurrian languages, and also talk about the influence of the Assyrian language on Urartian. Many Urartu ideograms repeat Assyrian ones, but have retained fewer interpretations of each symbol. Also, the Urartian language differs from the Assyrian language in some vowels, which indicates the originality of the articulation of the Urartian language.

Religion

The religion of Urartu was a polytheistic religion with a developed pantheon of gods, typical of the Middle Eastern despotic states of the Ancient World. The list of gods consists of 70 positions.

The supreme god in the pantheon was the god Khaldi. This was the only god of Urartian origin. The etymology of his name is not fully understood. There are versions that the name Khaldi is connected with the word “-hal” (sky) that still exists in some Caucasian languages, so “Khaldi” can be translated as “heavenly”.
The second god of the pantheon - Teisheba - was the god of thunder and war, the god Shivini - the god of the sun.

The gods of Urartu, like the gods of any ancient pantheistic pantheon, can hardly be called merciful and tolerant. Sacrifice, including human sacrifice, was common in Urartu. However, researchers note the relative tolerance of the Urartian religion, associated with the multi-tribal nature of the Urartian population.

Urartu and its enemies

Urartu's main enemy was Assyria. The struggle for hegemony in the Middle East continued throughout the history of Urartu. Urartu borrowed a lot from the Assyrians, including elements military uniform and weapons characteristic of the Assyrians. In open clashes, the army of Urartu lost to the Assyrians, partly due to this is the widespread development of defensive architecture in the state.

The army of Urartu was regular, wars, both defensive and expansionary, were ongoing. At the same time, the rulers of Urartu took a direct part not only in battles, but also in military tournaments held in Urartu. The army of Urartu was large enough to ensure its interests (in its best years). Thus, the army of King Ishpuini consisted of 100 chariots, 10 thousand horse soldiers and 3 thousand foot soldiers.

The 6th century BC was a crisis for both Assyria and Urartu. Urartu was attacked by the Scythians and Cimmerians from the north, and from the southeast by the Medes. Under their onslaught, the state began to disintegrate, its capital moved to the Transcaucasian city of Teishebaini. From the moment of the destruction of Teishebaina, the history of Urartu as a state can be considered complete. On the topic of who destroyed this city, historians still do not have an accurate idea. The honor of burying the glory of Urartu is shared by the Scythians, Cimmerians, Medes and Babylonians.

They preserved the originality of material and spiritual culture

"Discovery" of the civilization of Urartu

The history of Transcaucasia in ancient times is one of the most interesting pages in world culture. It was here that the oldest state formation arose on the territory of the CIS countries - Urartian kingdom. Later, the unique civilizations of Colchis, Iberia, Armenia, and Caucasian Albania were formed here.

The origins of the intensive development of Transcaucasian cultures go back to the 6th-5th millennium BC, when small settlements of settled farmers and cattle breeders existed in the valleys of the Kura and Araks rivers. Their inhabitants lived in adobe houses with a round plan and used flint, stone and bone tools. Later, copper products appeared. Further cultural and economic progress was noted in the 3rd millennium BC, when the Early Bronze Age culture, called the Kura-Araxes culture, spread in the Armenian Highlands and Transcaucasia.

Bowl from Trialeti. 2000-1500 BC

The process of decomposition of primitive relations received intensive development among the tribes that lived in the area of Lake Van and bore the name Urartians. Eight countries under the general name Uruatri are mentioned in this region in Assyrian sources as early as the 13th century. BC In documents from the reign of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II, instead of numerous small possessions, a country named Urartu is mentioned. Another state association of Urartian tribes formed to the southwest of Lake. Urmia was called Mutsatsir. The all-Urartian cult center was located here. Unfortunately, Urartu for a long time remained a little-studied civilization of the ancient East. Russian and Soviet orientalists M.V. Nikolsky, I.N. Meshchaninov, N.Ya. Marr, I.A. Orbeli, G.A. Melikishvili published and analyzed in detail the Urartian written texts, which was a reliable basis for the study of this “forgotten kingdom” " The excavations of the Urartian city of Teishebaini, carried out under the leadership of Academician B.B. Piotrovsky, the ruins of which are called Karmir-Blur and are located near Yerevan, essentially rediscovered many aspects of the Urartian civilization.

The exceptional significance of these studies is determined by the fact that these were the first strictly scientific excavations of the Urartian city. Thanks to them, enormous material material was obtained, which became the basis for understanding the history of the material culture of Urartu, and, what is much more important, the excavations and study of the results made it possible for the first time to understand the true place of the Urartian civilization among the ancient Eastern civilizations and the role of its heritage for the further destinies of the culture of the entire Transcaucasia, to create scientific periodization of the Urartian state and its culture, to reveal the social nature of Urartian society. In addition, Teishebaini’s excavations “pushed” the study of other monuments of Urartu both on the territory of Armenia and beyond its borders (in Turkey and Iran).

The emergence and development of the state of Urartu

Unification of the state

The first ruler of the united Urartu was King Aram (864-845 BC). However, the army of Shalmaneser III launched campaigns against him. Assyrian politicians apparently already sensed a potential threat in the emerging young state. However, these military actions did not affect the main regions of Urartu and Mutsatsir, and contrary to the hopes of the kings of Assyria, the strengthening of the new state continued. The Urartian ruler Sarduri I (835-825 BC) had already formalized his ambitions. He adopted a pompous title borrowed from the Assyrian kings. This was a direct challenge to the power of Assyria. The capital of the Urartian state became the city of Tushpa in the area of \u200b\u200bLake. Van, around which powerful stone walls are being built.

Religious reform

For the ideological unity of the new state, a religious reform was carried out - a special role was given to the three main deities:

Khaldi - to the god of the sky,
Teisheba - god of thunder and rain
Shivini - to the sun god.

The influence of the ancient religious center of the Urartian tribes Mutsatsir, where the main temple of the supreme god of the Urartian pantheon, Khaldi, was located, was strengthened. Intensive construction activity covers almost the entire territory of the state. Numerous Ishpuini inscriptions tell about her; they also tell about numerous campaigns.

Reign of King Menua

The true creator of Urartian power was King Menua. Some of the official annals have been preserved, describing the activities of this ruler year after year (similar annals in Urartu were also one of Menua’s innovations). Menua's military campaigns went in two directions - to the south, towards Syria, where his troops captured the left bank of the Euphrates, and to the north, towards Transcaucasia. At the same time special attention paid attention to the organization of subordinate territories. Apparently, in a number of cases the power of local kings was retained, but at the same time representatives were appointed central government- heads of regions.

Obviously, administrative reform also dates back to the time of Menua - the division of the Urartian state into regions governed by representatives of the central government.

Menua's construction activities were also very large-scale. In the area of the capital city of Tushpa, a canal about 70 km long was built, and in some places water was transferred through aqueducts made of stone, reaching a height of 10-15 m. In addition to this structure, which in ancient times was called the “Menua Canal,” canals were also built in other regions of the kingdom.

Argishti Board

Under Menua's son and successor Argishti (786-764 BC), Urartu reached the zenith of its power. Urartian troops penetrate into Northern Syria, where they win over the local rulers to their side. In the southeast, having included the Mannaean kingdom in their orbit of influence, the Urartians descend along mountain valleys to the Diala basin, practically reaching the borders of Babylonia. As a result, Assyria finds itself surrounded on three sides by the possessions of Urartu and its allies.

Argishti also attached great importance to advancement in Transcaucasia. Urartian troops reach Colchis in Western Georgia, cross the Araks and take possession of a vast territory on its left bank up to Lake. Sevan. An extensive program of economic and construction activities is being carried out in the newly annexed regions. Near Armavir in 776 BC. the large urban center of Argishtikhinili is being built. On the site of modern Yerevan in 782 BC. Another city is being built - Erebuni. In the Argishtikhinili area, four canals are being built, vineyards and orchards are being established. Giant granaries are built in fortified cities, where state grain reserves are concentrated. The policy of creating a second important economic center of the Urartian state in Transcaucasia, in an area remote from the main theater of military operations, fully justified itself in the course of subsequent events. The work of his father was continued by his son Argishti Sarduri II (764-735 BC).

Assyrian invasion

Silver bowl with a ritual scene. Trialeti. 2000-1500 BC

However, a certain internal stabilization is taking place in Assyria - Tiglagpalasar III comes to power, strengthening the combat power of the Assyrian army. In 734 BC. Assyrian armed forces engage in battle with the Urartu-led coalition in Northern Syria near the town of Arpad. The allies are defeated, and Sarduri retreats to the indigenous lands of his power. In 735 BC. Tiglath-pileser III strikes at the very heart of the Urartian state, in the area of \u200b\u200bLake. Wang. A number of central regions were put to fire and sword.

Strengthening the state by Tsar Rus

But the fight was not over. King Rusa I (735-713 BC) sought to revive the power of Urartu. In foreign policy, he tried to avoid open confrontation with Assyria, while at the same time supporting anti-Assyrian sentiments everywhere. Carrying out an active policy in the south also made it difficult for the Cimmerian nomads to invade the northern regions of Urartu. But the Urartian possessions in Transcaucasia systematically expanded, new cities were founded. Big works the creation of a powerful economic complex was carried out by Rusa I in the area north of the city of Urmia. The king did not forget the traditional center of his state - the lake area. Wang. An extensive reservoir was built there, vineyards and fields appeared, and a new city called Rusakhinili arose.

New blow from Assyria

Seeing the energy with which Rusa I strengthened the power of Urartu, Assyria hastened to strike a new blow. The trip was carefully prepared. In 714 BC. Assyrian troops, led by Sargon II, moved to the area east of the lake. Urmia against local rulers, skillfully set against Assyria by the Urartian king. But Rusa I also considered the moment opportune for a decisive battle and tried with his army to go to the rear of the army of Sargon II. The battle ended with the defeat of the Urartians. As a result of this campaign, Urartu was defeated in the struggle for political hegemony in Western Asia and ceded this role to Assyria.

Bomb-shaped vessel. Urartu. VIII century BC

However, in the future both sides avoided direct clashes. Under these conditions, Argishti II (713-685 BC) directed his campaigns to the east, reaching the coast of the Caspian Sea. Here the traditional policy of the Urartian kings continued - the defeated regions were not ruined, but were subjugated on the terms of paying tribute. Argishti II carried out irrigation work in the central regions of the Urartian state - near lake. Wang. This stable situation continued under Ruse II (685-645 BC).

The arrival of the Scythians and the end of the independence of Urartu

Apparently, Ruse II managed to conclude an alliance with the Cimmerians, together with whom he made successful campaigns in Asia Minor. In Transcaucasia, he carried out large irrigation works and built the above-mentioned city of Teishebaini. However, the threat to Urartian power lay in a new force - in the Scythian nomadic tribes that penetrated into Western Asia and created in the 670s. BC own "kingdom". The Scythians defeated the allies of Urartu - the Cimmerians. Apparently, a number of regions of Urartu were also affected at the same time.

After all, these attacks were all the more dangerous because they affected the deep rear of the Urartian state, which remained practically inaccessible to the Assyrian army. Urartu is noticeably weakening and losing its previously strong position in the international arena. Construction activity continues in the Van region and in Transcaucasia, but its scale is decreasing. At the beginning of the 6th century. BC Urartu falls into vassalage from the new powerful state of the ancient East - Media, and by 590 BC. ceases to exist as an independent state.

Inner life of Urartu

A monster that serves as a stool for God. Detail of the throne of an Urartian deity. Bronze inlaid with gold. Rusakhinili. VIII-VII centuries BC

The Urartian state paid great attention to economic development, especially taking care of the construction of irrigation canals and the construction of reservoirs. Royal farms played a significant role in the economy. During the construction of Teishebaini, Rusa II simultaneously constructed a canal and created extensive agricultural land. According to rough estimates, Teishebaini's granaries and wine warehouses were designed for products obtained on an area of 4-5 thousand hectares. According to cuneiform inscriptions, the staff of the royal household in Rusakhinili was estimated at 5,500 people. On the royal farms, agricultural products were processed and craft workshops operated. Temple farms were of much less importance.

City building

The achievements of the Urartians in the field of culture were remarkable. The history of Urartu is the history of the urbanization of Transcaucasia. The territory of cities is usually quite large - from 200 to 300 hectares (Argishtikhin or even 400-500 hectares). Cities, as a rule, were created at the foot of high hills, the tops of which were occupied by citadels. The layout of some Urartian cities had a regular character, for example, in Zernakitepe. Apparently, a rectangular planning system also existed in Teishebaini. City builders sought to ensure that the boundaries of urban development coincided with natural obstacles (river, steep hillsides, etc.). The defensive systems of cities consisted of one, usually two, and sometimes three lines of walls. City walls, 3.5-4 m thick, were usually equipped with buttresses and massive projecting square towers.

Palace construction

Urartian palaces were of two types. The basis of the composition of the palace in Erebuni consists of two courtyards, around which there are premises for various purposes. One of the courtyards is surrounded by a colonnade, and all the most important rooms of the palace are grouped around it. The core of the second type of palaces are the columned halls. The palace complex of the western citadel of Argishtikhinili was divided into two parts: ceremonial residential and economic. The center of the front part was a large columned hall (two rows of ten columns). The temple architecture of Urartu is very diverse. The temple of the god Khaldi in Erebuni consists of a main oblong hall with a columned portico in front of it and two square rooms, one of which is a tower. This type is close to the Hurrian-Mitannian structures. The most common, however, is another type of temple: a square one-room building, erected on a platform, with corner projections and a tent-shaped crosshair. Another type of temple is known only from its reproduction on the relief. This is a famous Assyrian relief depicting the capture of Mutsatsir. The temple in Mutsatsir is reminiscent of ancient ones.

Sculpture and painting

Caryatid. Detail of the throne of an Urartian deity. The trash of the god Khaldi. Urartu. Rusakhinili. VIII-VII centuries BC

The monumental art of Urartu is represented by stone reliefs, round sculpture, and wall paintings. Stone sculpture is divided into two clearly distinguishable groups. One includes monuments of Urartian sculpture proper, associated with the art traditions of the ancient Near East. True, finds of this sculpture are very rare. In particular, a damaged statue made of gray basalt, found in Van and apparently depicting one of the first Urartian kings, has been preserved. Much more common is folk sculpture of the “traditional conventional style”, which continues the traditions of Bronze Age sculpture. Monumental reliefs are best known from finds in Adyldzhevaz, where a procession of gods was apparently represented.

The most studied is the Urartian wall painting. The picturesque panels were arranged in the form of often alternating horizontal stripes - ornamental and pictorial. Urartian paintings are included in the general circle of Western Asian ancient monumental painting. They are characterized by great conventionality and canonicity, reflected in the use of certain stereotypes when depicting living beings and plants, the use of a certain, strictly limited set of themes (images of deities, kings, ritual scenes predominate), very strong symbolism that links together both pictorial and ornamental motives.

Applied arts

The Urartians achieved great mastery in applied arts, especially in the production of works of art from bronze. This was achieved, in particular, thanks to the high technical level of Urartian metalworking.

The works of Urartian toreutics were extremely popular. Their finds have been recorded in Asia Minor (in particular, in Gordion), on a number of islands of the Aegean Sea (Rhodes, Samos), on mainland Greece (Delphi, Olympia), even in Etruria. Vivid examples of Urartu art are ceremonial shields, helmets, and quivers that served as offerings to temples. They were decorated with relief scenes (images of horsemen, warriors, and sometimes sacred scenes). During the excavations, a large amount of gold and silver jewelry of high artistic level was also found.

Urartian culture played an exceptional role in the subsequent destinies of the culture of the entire Near East. Its greatest achievements were adopted by Media, then by Achaemenid Iran and spread widely throughout the Near and Middle East.

New states in post-Urartian times

In the post-Urartian period, the formation of class society and statehood was completed in three more Transcaucasian centers: Colchis, Iberia and Albania. Here, as well as in the historical successor of Urartu - the ancient Armenian kingdom, a powerful impulse coming from ancient civilization was later added to the local and ancient Eastern cultural traditions. This general pattern of historical and cultural development took place in a complex political situation of the formation and collapse of new states, military campaigns and diplomatic alliances.

Wall painting with ornament. Urartu. Erebuni VIII century. BC

Thus, in general outline The periodization of the civilizations of Transcaucasia currently looks as follows:

in the first centuries of the 1st millennium BC. here there is one center of statehood and class society - Urartu;
then the Black Sea coast of Transcaucasia - ancient Colchis - is included in the zone of statehood formation;
in Hellenistic times - the remaining areas of this region - Iberia (modern Eastern Georgia) and Caucasian Albania (regions of modern Azerbaijan and part of Dagestan).

Armenia

A significant part of the former Urartian possessions became part of the Median state, and then the Achaemenid empire. They were included in several satrapies, paid a tax to the central government, supplying armed contingents to the Achaemenid army. Within the framework of such satrapies in the VI-V centuries. BC The formation of the ancient Armenian nationality takes place, which gradually included the descendants of the Urartians and some other tribal groups. The Achaemenids widely involved local nobility in governance. Soon, representatives of the ancient Armenian nobility - the Ervandids (Orontids in Greek translation) became the rulers of one of the satrapies. The culture and life of the satrap and his entourage followed Achaemenid models. In Erebuni, the Urartian buildings were redesigned in such a way that they formed a large 30-columned hall - a local echo of the royal state halls of Persepolis and Susa. Cultural and trade ties are expanding - Greek coins of the 5th century were found during excavations in Erebuni. BC Ancient Iranian religious ideas, and in particular, apparently, Zoroastrianism, have a significant influence on ancient Armenia. However, mass, folk culture largely continues the Urartian traditions.

Dependence of Armenia on the Seleucids and the formation of Sophen

Armavir, located on the territory of the earlier Urartian center, became the capital of the Ervandid possessions. The relatively short-lived independence of Armenia came to an end in 220 BC, when Antiochus III annexed this state to the so-called Greater Armenia, which he created within the Seleucid state. In the II century. BC, during the period of weakening of this state, in the areas west of the lake. Van, the independent state of Sophen was formed, headed by Zariadr (Armenian: Zarekh), another state was formed between Van and Sevan, officially called Armenia. Its first king was Artashes I (Greek Artaxius), the founder of a new dynasty - the Artashesids. Artashes I himself (189-161 BC) paid a lot of attention to the improvement of the new state; under him, in particular, a new capital, Artashat, was founded not far from Armavir.

The ups and downs of Armenia

Around 95 BC The Parthians contributed to the accession of Tigran II to the throne of the Artashesids, but he turned out to be a skillful and far-sighted politician and soon ousted the Parthians himself. The short “rise” of the ancient Armenian kingdom begins. In Syria, Tigran II subjugated part of the former Seleucid possessions to his power and to the southwest of the lake. Van, in the foothills of the Armenian Taurus, founded a new capital - Tigranocerta, created according to the type of Hellenistic Greek city-states. The title “king of kings,” which Tigran II soon took, was quite logical - under him, Armenia truly turned into a major power.

However, the general situation in Western Asia continued to remain tense. Tigran II was forced to yield to the Roman onslaught, and in 66 BC. A peace treaty with Pompey was signed in Artashat. The borders of “Great Armenia” were curtailed, the “king of kings” recognized himself as “a friend and ally of the Roman people.”

The successes of the Parthians, and in particular the decisive victory over Crassus at Carrhae in 53 BC, contributed to some strengthening of the independence of the Armenian state, but soon Antony's campaigns again reduced the country to the position of a Roman vassal.

Acceptance of Christianity

The activation of Rome in the east almost primarily affected Armenia. In 114 AD under Trajan, Armenia, albeit for a short time, was generally declared a Roman province. Numerous uprisings and pressure from Parthia forced Hadrian to withdraw the Roman garrisons, and from the second half of the 2nd century. AD Armenia becomes practically independent. The Sassanids, who replaced Parthia, tried to subjugate Armenia, but met strong resistance. A state with ancient traditions also sought to establish ideological independence, which was, in particular, associated with the adoption under Tiridates III (287-330 AD) as the state religion of Christianity, which began to spread in Transcaucasia from the 2nd century. AD

Armenia in the last centuries BC and the first centuries AD was a country of high culture. A clear indicator of this is the process of urbanization. Ancient Armenian cities were founded according to all the rules of Hellenistic urban planning. Characteristic, in particular, regular layout city blocks.

Culture of ancient Armenia

The rise of urban planning naturally contributed to the development of architecture. Advanced Hellenistic and Roman construction techniques and types of buildings were borrowed. The temple in Garni, recently completely restored, is widely known. It is a peripterus (24 columns) of the Ionic order, standing on a high podium. The roof was gable, the facade was decorated with a pediment. During the restoration work, it was found that the ceiling of the temple's naos was vaulted. The temple was apparently built in the 1st century. AD and dedicated to the god Mihr. The Garni bathhouse is also very interesting, the floor of one of the rooms was decorated with mosaics.

The sculpture of Armenia is characterized by great diversity. Here, both magnificent imported works of Hellenistic sculpture and very simple, sketchy statues were found - a continuation of the previous folk tradition. But the most popular was the artistic movement, which was an organic fusion of Hellenic and local artistic principles.

Cauldron ornament. Bronze. Urartu. VIII century BC

A striking phenomenon was the Armenian coroplasty. The terracotta figurines found in Armavir and Artashat represent female and male figurines, images of horsemen, musicians, etc. The coroplasticity of Armenia is reminiscent of the coroplasticity of Mesopotamia in Parthian times, but differs in a number of unique and original features. The level of metalworking and related branches of art: toreutics and jewelry were high.

Less known is the spiritual life of Armenia in ancient times. It can be assumed that during this period there was a significant difference between the nature of the culture of the royal court and the top of the ruling class, on the one hand, and the culture of the main part of the population of Armenia, on the other. While the former turned out to be very susceptible to Hellenistic and Parthian cultural influences, the latter remained faithful to local age-old traditions. In the spiritual culture of the people, the heroic epic apparently played an important role, echoes of which were preserved in Movses Khorenatsi and in the epic cycle about David of Sassoun.

The religion of Armenia was characterized by syncretism, merging ancient local cults and Iranian influences.

The most important place in the pantheon was occupied by the deities Mihr, Anahit and Vahagn. The kings sought to create and widely disseminate the cult of the dynasty, which was supposed to serve as a means of unifying the population under the rule of the Armenian rulers.

Colchis

Colchis occupied a special place in the history of Transcaucasia. The history of Colchis in ancient times is illuminated by ancient written sources, significant information is provided by archaeological research (particularly noteworthy is the work of O. D. Lordkipanidze and G. A. Lordkipanidze), and epigraphic finds have recently been made. Unlike other areas of this region, it was more closely connected with the world of Mediterranean cultures and in the 6th century. BC became the object of Greek colonization.

Greek colonization

The problem of Greek colonization in Colchis is one of the most controversial in modern science. There are three points of view -

Some scholars have argued that the “model” of Greek colonization in this area is no different, for example, from the northern Black Sea, where the Greeks created their own policies and developed a vast agricultural territory.
According to another point of view, the Greeks who settled here did not create their own policies, but settled in local cities.
In recent years, a third point of view has become increasingly recognized: the Greeks created their policies on east coast Black Sea, but their main economic base was not agriculture (like most “colonial” policies), but intermediary trade.

The main obstacle to the widespread expansion of the Greeks was the fact that by the time they arrived in Colchis, a local state entity had already formed here. One of the most important prerequisites for its emergence was the rapid development of productive forces in the early Iron Age. Colchis became one of the most important centers of iron metallurgy. Sharp social differentiation in Colchis is revealed in burial materials. Thus, only one female grave of the 5th century. BC contained over 1,600 gold items, including magnificent tiaras depicting lions tearing apart a bull and a gazelle.

Pagan temple. Garni. I-II centuries AD

Economy

Urban-type settlements also develop on the mainland, far from the coast (Vani et al.). The basis for the prosperity of Colchis was a variety of crafts and developed trade. The products of local craftsmen made of iron and gold were especially perfect. It is not without reason that in the ancient world the idea of Colchis as the country of the “golden fleece” was established; the adventures of the Argonauts who came to Colchis for him are one of the most popular themes of the Greek epic.

Flax and hemp were produced for export, and, as ancient geographers, in particular Strabo, specifically noted, the country was “remarkable for everything necessary for shipbuilding.” Trade was not only local, but also transit, and it was believed that representatives of 70 tribes and nationalities met in Dioscurias to trade. This circumstance was associated with early development monetary circulation. On the coast, coins from various Greek cities were widespread, and in the interior of Colchis, locally issued coins predominated, called “Colchisian” by modern researchers. These coins feature a bust of the ruler on one side and the head of a bull on the other. Release of "Colchian women" in the 5th - first half of the 3rd century. BC indicates developed commodity-money relations and, according to a number of scientists, the existence of an independent Colchis state. By the 3rd century. BC include gold coins minted in the name of the local king Aka. Administratively, Colchis was divided into a number of provinces, headed by individuals who bore the title of skeptuhs (“scepter-bearers”).

The most remarkable feature of the culture of ancient Colchis was the interaction of indigenous and Greek traditions. In the coastal centers, and perhaps also in Vani, Greek master craftsmen from Sinop, Heraclea and other centers worked. During excavations in Vani, many Greek amphorae and other imported items were discovered. Highly artistic works of ancient art also arrived in Colchis: painted ceramics, marble sculpture, etc.

Urban planning

The most important materials for judging the nature of the culture of Colchis were provided by the excavations of Vani. The city consisted of two parts: the “acropolis”, located on a high triangular hill, and the “lower city”, located at the confluence of the Sulori and Rioni rivers. The Acropolis was perfectly fortified. The system of its fortifications testifies to a deep knowledge of the then advanced principles of Hellenistic fortification. At the same time, local features are also noticeable - at the outer side of the city gate there was a statue of the guardian goddess of the city.

Gold earrings. Colchis. V century BC

Several structures have been discovered on the territory of the acropolis. A study of the architectural monuments of Vani shows that local architects were well acquainted with the achievements of Hellenistic architecture and urban planning. The influence of Greek architecture is primarily evident in the construction techniques (rusticated blocks, extensive use of roofing tiles, mosaic floors). Elements of order architecture are also being introduced (Attic profile bases, Corinthian order capitals, architraves, sims in the form of lion heads, coffered ceilings).

The introduction of elements of the Greek order, however, did not change the essence of local architecture. The order was perceived as a decorative system, while the designs themselves remained traditional. Particularly indicative in this regard are tower-shaped sanctuaries, dating back to ancient local prototypes.

Colchis was the center of a unique area of art. The presence of stone and bronze sculptures has been recorded here, small figurines, including silver ones, have been found, and monuments of coroplastic, toreutics, and glyptics are found. All areas of art are characterized by a fusion of local and Greek artistic traditions.

Dependence on Rome

As Rome's influence spreads in the east, Colchis also falls into the orbit of its influence. Included in the possessions of Mithridates VI of Pontus, after the defeat of this ardent enemy of the Romans, it became dependent on the victors. Roman garrisons were located in coastal cities. In 63 BC. Pompey claims as “king of the Colchians” a certain Aristarchus, who minted his own coin. In the 1st century AD the coastal regions, called Polemonian Pontus, form the Roman province.

Soon Colchis was included in the Roman province of Cappadocia.

Early states in Georgia

In the III-IV centuries. AD Western Georgia in ancient sources is called Lazika, although the locals called their country Egrisi. The capital was Archaeopolis. From the beginning of the 4th century. Christianity spreads here.

Iberia

An important and unique state formation of Transcaucasia in the ancient era was Iberia. Greco-Roman authors called the East Georgian kingdom of the ancient era (III century BC - III-IV centuries AD) Iberia. Medieval Georgian sources call it Kartli. Iberia occupied mainly what is now Eastern and Southern Georgia. However, over time, she was able to take possession of some areas of Colchis. The history of Iberia is known to us from reports of ancient authors and a few inscriptions. But in recent decades, archaeological work has been carried out on a wide scale, providing rich new material that is being actively studied (research by G. A. Melikishvili, O. D. Lordkipanidze, A. V. Bokhotchadze, Yu. M. Gagoshidze seems very interesting in this regard ).

During the Hellenistic era, the formation and strengthening of the state in Iberia took place. An interesting temple complex of that time (2nd-1st centuries BC) was explored in an area called Dedoplis-Mindori. Excavations revealed a grandiose system of simultaneous buildings, representing a rectangle with an area of about 6 hectares, surrounded by a wall. Its longitudinal axis is oriented along the north-south line. In the southern part of the complex there was the main temple (46x30 m) - a four-column square hall with a quadrangular platform for the altar in the center. The hall and the extensive portico leading to it are surrounded on three sides by a system of corridors. Adjacent to the main rectangle of the temple from the north is an ivan-type room - an open portico with two columns. A small temple is located 90 m north of the main temple.

Strictly symmetrical in relation to the temples are the eastern and western gates, which are extensive propylaea with six columns, consisting of two unequal porticoes - external and internal.

Researchers (in particular, the director of the excavations, Yu. M. Gagoshidze) believe that this extensive temple complex was dedicated to the gods of the Mazdaist circle, largely merged with the ancient local Georgian astral deities, and that the main temple was dedicated to a deity like the Avestan Ardvisura Anahita.

Archaeological research in recent decades has made it possible to judge the nature of the cities of Iberia in the first centuries of our era. According to the ancient Georgian historical tradition, preserved by Leonti Mroveli, the first king of Iberia, Parnavaz, began to build his residence on Mount Armazi, where he also erected an “idol” (i.e., a statue) in his honor. According to the same tradition, subsequent kings continued construction here. The mountain turned into an acropolis. Georgian tradition consistent with the data of such ancient authors as Strabo and Pliny the Younger. This city is located on Bagineti Hill. Archaeological excavations have discovered defensive walls, palace and public buildings, and tombs. Archaeologists have uncovered the ruins of a number of other cities in Iberia (in Sarkin, Dzalisi, Urbnisi, etc.). There were also so-called cave cities, for example Uplistsikhe.

Palace-type buildings were opened in Bagineti, Armaziskavi, Dzalisi. In several places, baths with a typical Roman structure were discovered. The architecture of Iberia has reached a very high level of development. Already in early centers (for example, in Samadlo) such a complex technique as terracing the slopes of a hill was used. In the construction of buildings, the rule was a combination of stone and mud brick; from the very first centuries of our era, especially during the construction of thermal baths, - baked brick. Tiles were widely used. Column structures and toroidal bases were popular in Iberian architecture.

Particular attention is drawn to the mosaics, among which the most interesting are the panels from Dzalisi. The thermal baths feature plant scenes, images of fish, dolphins, and shells. In the palace premises there are mosaic scenes of magnificent quality depicting Dionysus and Ariadne, various characters of the Dionysian circle, rich floral and geometric patterns, and explanatory inscriptions.

Golden diadem. Colchis. V century BC

Dionysus and the Dionysian cult were very popular in Iberia. This is evidenced by many finds of works of art. For example, during the excavations of Sarkine, excellent quality terracotta masks depicting Dionysus and Ariadne, and figurines of the Dionysian circle were discovered. It is likely that the terracotta masks served to decorate the interior of some building and were hung on the wall in one row: this is evidenced by small holes for the cord. Toreutics, glyptics, and jewelry also developed in Iberia.

Caucasian Albania

Caucasian Albania was located further from the centers of the Greco-Roman world than other regions of Transcaucasia, and therefore its history and culture found little coverage in the works of ancient authors. Epigraphic materials are almost completely absent. Because of this, archaeological finds are of particular importance. Among quite numerous studies on the history of Caucasian Albania special place are occupied by the works of K.V. Trever, I.G. Aliev, I.A. Babaev, J.A. Khalilov and others.

The problem of the time of formation of statehood and class society on the territory of Caucasian Albania still remains debatable, however, it can be considered that the mentioned process ends in the Hellenistic era. Albania was less affected by Roman expansion than other Transcaucasian countries, although the Romans penetrated here in the 1st century. BC (campaigns of Pompey), and later. One evidence of this is a Latin inscription from the end of the 1st century composed on behalf of the centurion of the XII Legion. AD, found in the mountains of Gobustan, near Baku. Later, the Arsacid dynasty seized power in Caucasian Albania. Albania, to one degree or another, was involved in the Roman-Parthian confrontation in Transcaucasia.

The emergence of cities

The prerequisites for the emergence of cities in Albania developed by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. In the 1st century AD Kabala became the largest urban center and capital of the country. Archaeological research has shown that the total area of the city reached 50 hectares. In addition, urban centers of ancient times have been recorded in Shemakha, Mingachevir, Tazakent and in the northern part of the country, on the territory of Dagestan (Derbent, etc.).

During excavations, for example, in Kabala, ordinary dwellings and public buildings were explored. Wood, raw brick, and stone were used in construction. Popular in the construction of large buildings were columns, the bases of which were usually made of stone and the trunks of wood. Rich residential buildings, as well as public buildings, were covered with tiles. Agriculture, crafts, and trade developed in Albania. The medium of circulation was a local coin - an imitation of the drachmas of Alexander the Great. The time when the minting of these coins began remains a subject of debate.

Sculpture

Sculpture was a popular form of art. A number of very conventionally executed statues were found, undoubtedly dating back in their techniques to ancient prototypes. Apparently, they are of a cult nature. Small bronze sculptures are quite widespread. The figured ceramics are unusually elegant. Ancient potters gave vessels anthropomorphic and zoomorphic forms in the form of a goat, rooster, deer, bull, etc. Anthropomorphic vessels are found only in the Shamakhi region. Coroplasty also developed in parallel. The most popular were images of naked women. During the excavations of Kabala, a large collection of clay bullae was found with images of both Hellenistic (Hercules) and local types (horsemen, various animals). Glass, bronze vessels, jewelry, etc. penetrated from the Roman Empire to Caucasian Albania.

Religion

Religion played a significant role in the life of Albania. The supreme triad of gods included, according to Strabo, Selene, Helios and Zeus (Strabo names the Greek equivalents of local deities). The high priest is the second person in the state after the king, “he stands at the head of a large and densely populated sacred area, and also controls the slaves of the temple.”

The significance of the civilizations of Transcaucasia

The ancient civilizations of Transcaucasia, with all the uniqueness of each of them, also possessed a number of similar features, generated both by the proximity of the socio-economic system, and by the commonality of historical destinies and long-term mutual contacts. They went through a long path of historical development, interacting first with ancient Eastern civilizations, then with the Hellenistic world and, finally, with the Roman Empire and Parthian (and then Sasanian) Iran. History entrusted them with a task of enormous importance - they served the civilizations of the Near East as a reliable shield from the north, covering them from numerous and warlike nomadic tribes that lived in the steppes beyond the Caucasus ridge and repeatedly made trips to the south.

Subjected to constant pressure from both the south and the north, the peoples of Transcaucasia were nevertheless able to create, preserve and develop their deeply unique civilizations, in which both the most ancient cultural traditions and external influences, which have been mastered and processed in such a way that they have become important constituent element in the common treasury of world culture.

The vitality of cultural traditions is one of the most amazing and striking features civilizations that developed in ancient times in Transcaucasia.

Civilization arose in the 33rd century. back.
Civilization stopped in the 25th century. back.
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This civilization of Transcaucasia originated from the Sumerian-Akkadian civilization..

Toynbee classifies it as a companion to the flourishing civilizations.

The Urartians are the ruling tribe of the Urartian civilization, which was heterogeneous in its ethnic composition..

The population of Urartu included a large Hurrian population.

Urartu also included proto-Armenian tribes, speakers of the proto-Armenian language.

The state of this civilization was the Urartian kingdom. Ararat. Biaynili. Kingdom of Van.

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This is the ancient civilization of Transcaucasia.

The Urartians were a tribe that spoke the written Urartian language.

WITHAmong the population of Urartu there were people of both sedentary and nomadic types. Migrants came to Urartu from the southeast, northeast and west. The population of Urartu included a large area of the Hurrian population, possibly designated by the Assyrians with the word “Nairi”, remaining after the collapse of the Mitanni state.

INUrartu also included proto-Armenian tribes, speakers of the proto-Armenian language. Proto-Armenian tribes (flies in Assyrian sources) migrated to the Armenian Highlands from the west and settled on the territory of historical Armenia before the formation of the state of Urartu - at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. (modern Turkish province of Malatya on the site of historical Melitene). In Armenian historiography, the prevailing tendency is to talk about the autochthony of the Armenians in the Armenian Highlands in the Hayas region.

The state of this civilization was the Urartian kingdom.Ararat. Biaynili. Kingdom of Van. An ancient state in southwestern Asia, located on the territory of the Armenian Highlands (modern Armenia, eastern Turkey and northwestern Iran). Urartian art of this time has Assyrian features.

UThe Rartian language is similar to Hurrian. The Urartians probably spread across the Armenian Plateau from the Revanduz region in Western Azerbaijan, where ancient city Musasir. It is likely that the ancient Urartian city of Musasir was located on the territory of the initial settlement of this tribe.

WITHThe existence of Urartu as a union of tribes has been documented since the 13th century.The process of decomposition of primitive relations received intensive development among the tribes that lived in the area of Lake Van and bore the name Urartians. Eight countries under the general name Uruatri are mentioned in this region in Assyrian sources as early as the 13th century. BC

Urartu as a state has been mentioned in sources since the 8th century BC.

In the first quarter of the 1st millennium BC. Urartu occupied a leading position among the states of Western Asia.

Urartu ceased to exist in the 6th century BC.

Later, the civilizations of Colchis, Iberia, Armenia, and Caucasian Albania were formed here.

Sources.
1 . Assyrian mentions of Urartu in the period from the 13th to the 8th centuries BC. Assyrian sources are the basis of most of the historical data about Urartu, as well as the basis of the chronology of Urartu. The oldest known mention of Urartu is found in the inscriptions of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser I (Shulman-Ashared I, reigned 1280-1261 BC). From the texts we can conclude that the “kings of Urartu” during this period were in a long military confrontation with Assyria, and the organized military campaigns of the Assyrians regularly brought them success in the wars with the Urartians. The stronger Assyrian troops at that time, as a rule, pursued predatory goals; the main purpose of the raids on Urartu was to seize valuables and steal livestock.
2 . Babylonian chronicles of the 7th century BC, relating mainly to the decline of Urartu;
3 . brief mentions in Hittite hieroglyphic texts;
4 . Urartian inscriptions, made mainly in cuneiform, borrowed from the Assyrians.
5 . The Assyrian name for the state of Urartu has been in use since the 9th century BC. in Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions. There is an assumption that this name meant “high country.” In the 10th century BC. in Assyria there was also a variant “Uratri” (U-rat-ri).
6 . Biaini (Biainili). Local name with unclear etymology. The word Biaini acted both as the self-name of Urartu and as the name of the internal region of this country where the consolidation of the Urartian tribes first took place, in the area of the first capital of Urartu - the city of Arzashkun. The word “Van” in the name of the city of Van, located on the site of the former Urartian capital, and in the name of the lake of the same name probably etymologically go back to the word Biaynili.
7 . Kingdom of Van. The name Urartu currently used by many.
8 . Country of Nairi. Nairi is the early Assyrian name for a “group of tribes” living in the territories of Urartu. This name is found in the 13th-11th centuries BC, and Lake Van in Assyrian texts retained its old name “sea of the country of Nairi” (Akkadian tâmtu ša mât Nairi) in the subsequent period. Some researchers considered the Assyrian word "Nairi" to be the name of the Hurrian people, which is consistent with modern research on the relationship of the Urartian language with Hurrian.
9 . Ararat. Inaccurate Masoretic vowel of Aram. rrt = Urartu, which is used in biblical texts and is preserved in modern toponymy.
10 . Country of Alarodiev. Herodotus mentions the Urartians under the name Alarodia.
11 . Haldia. Some historians of the late 19th - early 20th centuries identified Urartu with the country of the “Chaldai” mentioned by ancient historians on the basis of a phonetic comparison with the name of the supreme deity of the Urartians, the god Khaldi.
12 . Aratta is an ancient mountainous country, mentioned back in the 3rd millennium BC. in Sumerian texts. The identification of Aratta with Urartu is not a generally accepted statement in scientific circles, made by individual researchers on a phonetic basis, and also partially argued by the English scientist David Rohl. But most scientists believe that Aratta was located in the mountains of central or southwestern Iran and is in no way connected with Nairi/Urartu.

In documents from the reign of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II, instead of numerous small possessions, a country named Urartu is mentioned.

Another state association of Urartian tribes formed to the southwest of Lake. Urmia was called Mutsatsir. The all-Urartian cult center was located here.

WITHThe formation of Urartu statehood dates back to the 9th-8th centuries. BC Geographically, it was located on the Armenian Highlands in the area of Lake Van. The state was called Biainili, the Assyrians called it Urartu and it became the successor to the intertribal union of Urautri. (Toynbee)

ANDIt was Assyria, through its actions, that contributed to the emergence of the state of Urartu on the Armenian Highlands. The desire of the local population to protect themselves from the predatory raids of the Assyrians contributed to the emergence of tribal unions, and over time, state formation. The natural resources of the Armenian Highlands initially created the economic prerequisites for the emergence of a state here, however, the military-political prerequisites and, accordingly, the opportunity to create such a state appeared only in the Iron Age: it became possible for the local population to effectively resist the formidable Assyrian army only after the technology of stone processing iron guns allowed the construction of numerous defensive fortresses on the Armenian Highlands.

PThe process of uniting tribes and developing technology for building fortresses continued for centuries. In the 9th century BC. Assyria managed to conduct its last successful campaigns against Urartu: under the leadership of Shalmaneser III (Shulman-Ashared III) in 858-856 BC. During the reign of Arama, Shalmaneser III destroyed the first capitals of Urartu, the cities of Suguniya and Arzashka, the exact location of which has not been established, and successfully advanced deeper into Urartu.

The Urartian ruler Sarduri I (835-825 BC) had already formalized his ambitions. He adopted a pompous title borrowed from the Assyrian kings. This was a direct challenge to the power of Assyria. The capital of the Urartian state became the city of Tushpa in the area of \u200b\u200bLake. Van, around which powerful stone walls are being built.

PRi Sarduri I, Assyrian raids could no longer reach the capital of Urartu, but only disturbed the southern outskirts of the country. Although in a direct clash the Urartian army lost to the Assyrian, the fortresses built by the Urartians no longer allowed the Assyrian army to penetrate far into the interior of the country. In addition, the harsh winter climate of the Armenian Highlands made the task more difficult for the Assyrians; they could carry out all offensive campaigns only in the summer and were now forced to carry heavy siege weapons with them. Under such conditions, the power of the Assyrian army was only sufficient for small successes. The power of Assyria in the region began to come to an end, and a new power in the Middle East began to flourish - the united Urartu.

The reign of the Urartian king Ishpuini (825-810 BC) was marked by active activity. If the inscriptions of Sarduri were written in Assyrian, now the official texts are compiled in the Urartian language, for which slightly modified Assyrian cuneiform was used. PUnder King Ishpuini, son of Sarduri I, (reigned c. 828-810 BC), the central power of Tushpa was further strengthened. The borders of Urartu are expanding: from the south, Urartu is joined by the territory between lakes Van and Urmia, as well as the territory south of Lake Urmia; in the north, in Transcaucasia, successful military campaigns are being carried out to capture the fertile valley of the Araks River. There is also a “centralization” of the Urartian religion. The deities of individual tribes are united into a single pantheon, headed by the gods of the central part of the country: Khaldi, Teisheba and Shivini. During the same period, cuneiform tablets appeared in the Urartian language.

The young state more and more clearly asserted its independence. The borders of the ruler Tushpa's possessions expand to the lake. Urmia, and the second Urartian formation - Mutsatsir - becomes one of the dependent possessions.

For the ideological unity of the new state, a religious reform was carried out - a special role was given to the three main deities: Khaldi - the god of the sky; Teisheba - the god of thunder and rain; Shivini - to the sun god.

The true creator of Urartian power was King Menua.

WITHWith the accession of Ishpuini's son Menua to the throne, massive construction work is being carried out on the territory of Urartu. During the reign of Menua (810-786 BC), fortresses were built protecting the approaches to Van, palaces and temples in many Urartian settlements, as well as a canal supplying water to the city of Tushpu, which has survived to this day. The period of Menua's reign overlaps with the reign of the famous Assyrian queen Semiramis. The lull in hostilities with Assyria was marked by the cultural influence of Assyria on Urartu.

Although many buildings near Lake Van during Menua’s life, including the canal to Tushpa, were associated with his name, after some time they began to be associated with the name of Semiramis, as those built in her time. The Armenian medieval historian Moses Khorensky cites legends about the personal participation of the queen in the construction of buildings near Van during the time of Menua. During the reign of Menua, irrigation work was also intensively carried out throughout the country, and the expansion of the Urartians continued to the north in Transcaucasia and to the southwest, where the borders of Urartu reached the middle reaches of the Euphrates.

Some of the official annals have been preserved, describing the activities of this ruler year after year (similar annals in Urartu were also one of Menua’s innovations). Menua's military campaigns went in two directions - to the south, towards Syria, where his troops captured the left bank of the Euphrates, and to the north, towards Transcaucasia. At the same time, special attention was paid to the organization of subordinate territories. Apparently, in a number of cases the power of local kings was retained, but at the same time representatives of the central government were appointed - the heads of the regions.

Obviously, administrative reform also dates back to the time of Menua - the division of the Urartian state into regions governed by representatives of the central government.

INDuring the reign of Menua's son Argishti I in 786-764 BC, Urartu was at the zenith of its power and became the most powerful state in Western Asia.Urartian troops penetrate into Northern Syria, where they win over the local rulers to their side. In the southeast, having included the Mannaean kingdom in their orbit of influence, the Urartians descend along mountain valleys to the Diala basin, practically reaching the borders of Babylonia. As a result, Assyria finds itself surrounded on three sides by the possessions of Urartu and its allies.

Urartu firmly took possession of the area around Lake Urmia, the territories of Transcaucasia and blocked trade routes from Asia Minor to Assyria. The eternal rival of Urartu, Assyria was thus deprived of militarily strategic supplies of horses and iron, and was at that time in a state of economic and political decline. King of Assyria Shalmaneser IV, a contemporary of Argishti I, called the Urartian king this way: “Argishti Urart, whose name is terrible, like a heavy storm, whose forces are vast.” Argishti I was succeeded on the throne by his son Sarduri II, who continued his father’s work, carrying out a series of military campaigns, expanding further the country’s borders.

MThe state of Urartu reached its height in 774 BC, when the army of Assyria was defeated under the leadership of King Argishti.

In the Argishtikhinili area, four canals are being built, vineyards and orchards are being established. Giant granaries are built in fortified cities, where state grain reserves are concentrated. The policy of creating a second important economic center of the Urartian state in Transcaucasia, in an area remote from the main theater of military operations, fully justified itself in the course of subsequent events.

The work of his father was continued by his son Argishti Sarduri II (764-735 BC).

IN744 BC Tiglath-Pileser III ascended the throne of neighboring Assyria and immediately began the struggle to restore Assyria's former dominance in Western Asia. Tiglath-pileser III carried out a number of reforms in the Assyrian army and began successful fighting on the western borders of Urartu, aimed at returning Assyria control over trade routes to Asia Minor. By 735 BC. A decisive battle took place between the Assyrian army and the Urartian army on the western bank of the Euphrates. The Assyrians defeated the Urartian army and captured a large number of prisoners and various trophies. Sarduri II, commander of the Urartian army, fled from the battlefield to Tushpa. Tiglath-pileser III continued his military campaign deep into Urartu:

But the fight was not over. King Rusa I (735-713 BC) sought to revive the power of Urartu. In foreign policy, he tried to avoid open confrontation with Assyria, while at the same time supporting anti-Assyrian sentiments everywhere. Carrying out an active policy in the south also made it difficult for the Cimmerian nomads to invade the northern regions of Urartu. But the Urartian possessions in Transcaucasia systematically expanded, new cities were founded. Extensive work to create a powerful economic complex was carried out by Rusa I in the area north of the city of Urmia. The king did not forget the traditional center of his state - the lake area. Wang. An extensive reservoir was built there, vineyards and fields appeared, and a new city called Rusakhinili arose.

IN722 BC A more decisive and warlike Sargon II, the youngest son of Tiglath-pileser III, came to power in Assyria.

Seeing the energy with which Rusa I strengthened the power of Urartu, Assyria hastened to strike a new blow. The trip was carefully prepared.

In 714 BC. Assyrian troops, led by Sargon II, moved to the area east of the lake. Urmia against local rulers, skillfully set against Assyria by the Urartian king. But Rusa I also considered the moment opportune for a decisive battle and tried with his army to go to the rear of the army of Sargon II. The battle ended with the defeat of the Urartians.Decisive for Urartu was the very fact of defeat in battle and the loss of Musasir, the religious center of Urartu, the place of coronation of the Urartian kings since the time of Ishpuini. With the death of Musasir, the greatness of the supreme Urartian god Khaldi was shaken.

As a result of this campaign, Urartu was defeated in the struggle for political hegemony in Western Asia and ceded this role to Assyria.

However, in the future both sides avoided direct clashes.During the period of the truce, Rusa I devoted a lot of time internal construction, especially in the area of the northern part of Lake Urmia, where through his efforts a large Urartian center arose - the city of Ulkhu. In addition, Rusa I built the new capital of Urartu - Rusakhinili on a rock a few kilometers from Tushpa.

INlate 8th century BC Sargon II died as a result of a palace conspiracy, and soon after Assyria plunged into a crisis associated with the confrontation with Babylonia and Media, which eventually, 100 years later, in 609 BC. led to the destruction of the Assyrian state.

In the meantime, the son of Rusa I, Argishti II (reigned 714 - ca. 685 BC), ascended the throne in Urartu. The nature of relations between Assyria and Urartu after the campaign of Sargon II changed: the parties began to resolve conflict situations through negotiations, and Urartu, fearing new defeats, ceased to lay claim to the northern possessions or zones of influence of Assyria.

Under these conditions, Argishti II (713-685 BC) directed his campaigns to the east, reaching the coast of the Caspian Sea. Here the traditional policy of the Urartian kings continued - the defeated regions were not ruined, but were subjugated on the terms of paying tribute. Argishti II carried out irrigation work in the central regions of the Urartian state - near lake. Wang. This stable situation continued under Ruse II (685-645 BC).

INThe son of Argishti II, who later ascended the throne of Rusa II (reigned c. 685 - c. 639 BC), taking advantage of the long truce, devoted himself to capital construction. During the reign of Rusa II, a large number of new fortified cities, temples and other structures were built in Urartu. Rusa II built the new capital of Urartu - Rusakhinili, located near Tushpa.

Rusa II carried out large construction both in the capital and in Transcaucasia. This was the time of establishing cultural contacts with the Scythians. There is information about the successful campaigns of the Urartu army together with Cimmerian detachments against Phrygia, when the king of the Phrygian kingdom Midas died. From that time on Lydia stood up.

However, the threat to Urartian power lay in a new force - in the Scythian nomadic tribes that penetrated into Western Asia and created in the 670s. BC own "kingdom". The Scythians defeated the allies of Urartu - the Cimmerians. Apparently, a number of regions of Urartu were also affected at the same time.

ABOUTAround 654, Rusa established peaceful relations with the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, when the latter was preparing for war with Babylonia. (Toynbee)

PAfter the death of Rusa II, Urartu was quite quickly, within 100 years, completely destroyed and subsequently forgotten even by ancient authors. Over the years, Urartu has seen several rulers: Sarduri III (ruled from c. 639 to c. 625 BC), Sarduri IV (ruled from c. 625 to c. 620 BC) .), Erimena, who reigned during the period ca. 620 - approx. 605 BC and saw the death of Assyria, as well as Rus III (ruled in the period ca. 605 - ca. 595 BC) and Rus IV (ruled in the period ca. 595 - ca. 585 BC) - the last king of Urartu. During the reign of these kings, almost no new construction was carried out, and, despite the deepening crisis in Assyria, Urartu did not resume attempts to take control of the strategic trade routes between Mesopotamia and Asia Minor until the end of its existence.Construction activity continues in the Van region and in Transcaucasia, but its scale is decreasing. At the beginning of the 6th century. BC Urartu falls into vassalage from the new powerful state of the ancient East - Media, and by 590 BC. ceases to exist as an independent state.

TO590 BC Urartu lost its independence. Under Sarduri III, the son of Rusa II, Urartu was already actually a vassal state in relation to Assyria. At this time, the Teishebaini (Karmir-Blur) fortress in Transcaucasia was destroyed. Local residents tried to defend the fortress, since the Urartu army detachment had left it by this time.

INIn the Urartian religion, an important place was occupied by the cults of deities of mountains, waters, and various natural phenomena. A special place was occupied by the Sky God Khaldi and his wife Uarubani, the God of thunder and rain Teisheba (Hittite-Hurrian Teshub), and the Sun God Shivini.

Urartian wall painting is the most studied. The picturesque panels were arranged in the form of often alternating horizontal stripes - ornamental and pictorial. Urartian paintings are included in the general circle of Western Asian ancient monumental painting. They are characterized by great conventionality and canonicity, reflected in the use of certain stereotypes when depicting living beings and plants, the use of a certain, strictly limited set of themes (images of deities, kings, ritual scenes predominate), very strong symbolism that links together both pictorial and ornamental motives.

The works of Urartian toreutics were extremely popular. Their finds have been recorded in Asia Minor (in particular, in Gordion), on a number of islands of the Aegean Sea (Rhodes, Samos), on mainland Greece (Delphi, Olympia), even in Etruria. Vivid examples of Urartu art are ceremonial shields, helmets, and quivers that served as offerings to temples. They were decorated with relief scenes (images of horsemen, war chariots, and sometimes sacred scenes). During the excavations, a large amount of gold and silver jewelry of high artistic level was also found.

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State of Urartu was located on a large highland located between Asia Minor, Transcaucasia (southern Armenia and Georgia), the northwestern outskirts of Iran and Northern.

The territory of Urartu was protected on all sides by mountain ranges and therefore provided natural conveniences for successfully protecting the population from raids by neighboring tribes and predatory conquests, mainly by kings.

The natural conditions of Urartu were quite diverse. The entire territory is cut by numerous mountain ranges, usually reaching a height of 2000-4000 m. Above them rise individual massifs and peaks covered with eternal snow (Great Ararat - 5156 m). The passes through these mountain ranges are located quite high and are often covered with snow in winter. In the Middle Caucasus, only very few passes are located below 3 thousand m.

The main natural resources of Urartu are stone, timber and metals. Of particular importance were the deposits of copper, iron, lead and tin, which determined the high development of metallurgy.

Already in the second millennium BC. tribal unions Nairi" And " Uruatri” (Urartu), are found in written testimonies of neighbors. It is possible that the name “Nairi” is related to the word “Naharina”, with the help of which the Egyptians and Semitic tribes designated the “country of rivers” that lay to the northeast of the middle reaches of the Euphrates.

Unfortunately, the inscriptions do not contain any direct and accurate information about the legendary “ancestral homeland” of the Urartians, located to the west or anywhere far from Transcaucasia. On the other hand, ancient and modern geographical names of mountains, lakes and tribes of Transcaucasia go back to deep Urartian antiquity. So, for example, the name of Mount Ararat and the Alarodian tribes, mentioned by ancient Greek writers, is obviously associated with the name of the country of Urartu and the Urartu tribe. The ancient name of the country Biaina is preserved in the designation of Lake Van. It is possible that in the area of Erzurum and the upper reaches of the Euphrates there lived a tribe of Diaukhi, close to the Urartians, which ancient Greek historians, such as Xenophon, called Taochians.

Thus, the Urartian tribes were the original population of Transcaucasia, firmly living in this territory since ancient times.

In general, we don’t know very much about Urartu and the Urartu people. The main sources of information about Urartu are cuneiform texts found in the Transcaucasus and neighboring countries, of which only about 350 Urartian inscriptions are known, but even they provide significant material, especially for studying the political history of the Urartu people.

The largest and most important among these inscriptions are Khorkhor inscription of Argishti I And large inscription of Sarduri II, being something like chronicles. The Khorkhor inscription describes political events, mainly the military campaigns of King Argishti, who stubbornly fought against Assyria and a number of neighboring peoples, and the large inscription of Sarduri II, in 265 lines, tells about the wars that this Urartian king and conqueror waged for 8 years .

The inscription of Sarduri II is of especially great historical interest, since it dates back to the heyday of the Urartian state - to the 8th century. BC e., when it began to gain the upper hand over its constant rival - Assyria. Urartian inscriptions also speak of Urartian campaigns in some regions of Transcaucasia and other neighboring countries.

The emergence of the state of Urartu

The first information about the Urartians dates back only to the 13th century. BC e., however, numerous excavations make it possible to study the culture of the ancient peoples of Transcaucasia, among which in the middle of the second millennium BC. e. The Urartian people took shape and subsequently created their own state. These ancient tribes, belonging to the Hittite-Hurrian group, were engaged in cattle breeding and agriculture. They knew small and large cattle, pigs, and from the end of the second millennium BC. e. and horses, as indicated by the finds of bronze bits and later burials of a rider with a horse.

In the river valleys and the fertile areas adjacent to them, people were engaged in agriculture, which in many respects still retained its primitive character. The land was cultivated with the help of very imperfect tools, for example a hoe, a model of which was found in Trialeti. Wooden sickles with flint inserts only gradually gave way to bronze ones. Millet, barley and wheat were sown. Among the crafts, stone processing and metallurgy achieved particular development. In many places of the Caucasus, especially in the Tsalka region, “many items made of obsidian (volcanic glass) were discovered, the processing technique of which dates back to ancient times.

The widespread use of stone in construction is indicated by megalithic architecture, examples of which in the form of numerous dolmens have been preserved on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, in particular in Abkhazia and other parts of Georgia, and finally in Azerbaijan. Ancient fortress walls made of large stones (Cyclopean masonry) also adjoin this type of structure. In many places in Transcaucasia, the remains of these ancient primitive fortresses were discovered, which date back to either the pre-Urartian or Urartian era and, in their typical large-stone masonry, are closely related to the Cyclopean architecture of the peoples of the northern part of Western Asia, in particular the Hittites.

In Armenia, in particular, in the area of Lake Sevan, the remains of ancient fortresses have been preserved. Judging by the Urartian inscriptions found here, these fortresses were centers of Urartian political influence and dominance in the regions of Transcaucasia. But it is possible that some of the Cyclopean fortresses of Transcaucasia were built back in the pre-Urartian era and served the local population as shelters, first during the period of intertribal wars, and then to protect the population from the troops of the Urartian kings, who repeatedly invaded Transcaucasia.

Metallurgy reached a particularly high flourishing among the ancient Caucasian tribes, as evidenced by biblical legends, testimonies of ancient authors and, in particular, the results of archaeological excavations. An important center of metallurgical production north of the Caucasus Range was the Koban region, where a huge number of artistic bronzes, axes and belt buckles decorated with fine ornaments were discovered. The largest center of metallurgy in Transcaucasia was the Tsalka region.

Many were found here metal products made from copper, bronze, silver and gold. All these products indicate great specialization in the field of metallurgy. Casting, forging and soldering were known. Jewelry art has reached a high level of development. They knew how to make various vessels decorated with ornaments from clay. Fabrics were made from wool. Judging by some large and rich burials, a clan aristocracy had already emerged in this era. However, people still lived under the conditions of a tribal system, remnants of which persisted for a very long time in the Caucasus, in particular among the Ossetians and the Svans.

Urartu writing - cuneiform, traditional for the region

Economy of the state of Urartu

In the fertile valley of the Araks River and in the river valleys located south of it, in the middle of the second millennium BC. the Urartian people stood out. In the 13th century BC, when Assyria first encountered the tribes of Urartu, a number of tribal alliances existed in the country of lakes and rivers located north of Mesopotamia. One of these large and strong tribal unions was the union of the Diaukh tribes, which occupied a vast territory northwest of Lake Van in the upper reaches of the Euphrates and further to the north and northeast towards the Black Sea.

The Assyrian kings in all their inscriptions mention the struggle with “kings”, who, obviously, were only tribal leaders. The Urartian union of tribes, which was first called “Uruatri” and then “Nairi”, only in the 9th century. BC turns into a fairly strong state - the state of Urartu.

Since ancient times, the Urartian tribes have been engaged in cattle breeding, and this cattle breeding for a long time had a very primitive nomadic character. Cattle were driven to mountain pastures for the summer, and returned to the valleys and lowlands for the winter. The main types of domestic animals were cow, sheep and pig, as indicated by the bones of these animals found during excavations on the southern shore of Lake Sevan. The corresponding Assyrian ideograms convey the names of these animals in the Urartian wedge-shaped inscriptions.

Historical sources indicate the very great importance of cattle breeding among the Urartians. The Balavat Gate of Shalmaneser III depicts the theft of cattle from the country of Gilzan (near Lake Urmia). The Urartian kings list in their inscriptions a huge number of cattle stolen as booty. Thus, the Urartian king Sarduri II brought 110 thousand heads of large animals and 200 thousand heads of small animals after his campaign in Transcaucasia cattle. The Assyrian kings stole large quantities of livestock from Urartu. Horse breeding was of particular importance in the Urartian cattle-breeding economy.

In some areas of Urartu, special breeds of riding horses were specially bred. Horses were often harnessed to chariots and used as beasts of burden to transport goods. Images of horsemen and chariots were preserved on some monuments, in particular on a bronze quiver, as well as on the helmets of Sarduri and Argishti, found in the ruins of the Urartian fortress in Karmir Blur (near Yerevan). The Assyrian and Urartian kings often report in their inscriptions the capture of large numbers of horses as spoils of war.

Along with horses, camels and donkeys were also used to transport heavy loads. Camels are mentioned in the inscriptions of the Urartian kings. These animals were used during irrigation work, in particular when filling dams. In the 8th century BC camels were known throughout the country, but their number was relatively small.

Agriculture was of great importance in the economy of the ancient Urartians. Since ancient times, they have been acclimatized on the territory of ancient Armenia various types wheat. To cultivate the land, they used a heavy plow harnessed to two oxen. The iron coulters of this plow, found in Toprah-Kala, are shaped like hoes. Along with iron sickles, primitive wooden or bone sickles with flint and obsidian inserts were also used. The technology of agricultural tools retained features of deep primitiveness.

However, agriculture was widespread in the country of the Urartians. Assyrian inscriptions often speak of the presence of large reserves of grain in the Urartian fortresses. Excavations of the Karmir Blur hill discovered large quantities of wheat, barley, millet, sesame and wheat flour. Grain and flour were stored in large jugs, the so-called karas, half dug into the ground, in special storerooms. In addition, voluminous granaries were discovered in the ruins of Karmir-Blur. It is possible that one of the storerooms excavated in the ruins of the fortress in Arin-berd also served to store grain. Viticulture and winemaking occupied a large place in the agricultural system.

In the northern part of the Karmir-Blur fortress, where there were mainly utility rooms, in 1949-1950. Two large storerooms for storing wine were found in fairly well-preserved condition. In these storerooms, 152 large vessels (karas) were discovered, in which about 150 thousand liters of wine were once stored. Finally, in the third storeroom, over a thousand clay jugs for wine were discovered. There is reason to believe that viticulture has reached significant development, as indicated by the seeds different varieties grapes found in the ruins of Karmir-Blur.

The presence of the main types of raw materials on the territory of Urartu - clay, stone, wood and metal - contributed to the significant development of handicraft production. The Urartians achieved great skill in stone processing. Various types of stone were processed using a metal cutter. A unique technical method of artistic stone processing was the inlay of objects made from stone of one type with parts made from stone of a different color and type. The high technique of stone processing is indicated by beads made of semi-precious stones, carefully drilled and well polished. The agricultural economy of the Urartians was largely based on artificial irrigation. Many inscriptions of the Urartian kings describe the construction of canals.

Numerous irrigation structures, canals and reservoirs have survived to this day. Especially many canals have been preserved in the area of Lakes Van, where the center of the state was located. Some of them are reinforced with powerful cyclopean masonry. Of particular importance was the large canal built by King Menua and later nicknamed the “Shamiram Canal”, named after the legendary Assyrian queen. This canal served to supply water to the Urartian capital Tushpa, located on the shores of Lake Van. The canal water was distributed through ditches to nearby fields and used for their irrigation. Water mills were driven by canals.

An Urartian millstone from a water mill is kept in Tbilisi in the Georgian Museum. Along with grain farming, horticulture and viticulture reached a high level of development. Vineyards were planted on artificial terraces that were built on the slopes of the mountains.

Metallurgy was of great importance in the development of handicraft production. Transcaucasia, together with Northern Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, forms one of the oldest regions of highly developed metallurgy, where iron appeared especially early and became very widespread. In particular, metallurgy flourished in the country of Urartu. Excavations at Toprah-Kala and Karmir-Blur showed that the Urartians used mainly iron to make tools and weapons. However, the Urartians had lead and tin at their disposal and knew how to produce a bronze alloy and make various objects from bronze. The high development of metallurgical technology is indicated by artistic figured legs and sculptural parts of the throne, cast from bronze according to a wax model.

The inscription of the Assyrian king, describing the booty taken during the capture of the Urartian city of Musasir, lists a huge number of different metal objects. Gold and silver were used to make luxury goods. The ancient Urartians were skilled builders. They built the vault of the building either from mud brick or from large stone slabs or blocks (Cyclopean megalithic masonry).

Fortresses were built especially carefully, the walls of which in their lower part, made of large stone blocks, reached 1 m in thickness. Large fortifications were located on the shore of Lake Van, where the Urartian capital Tushpa was located. Excavations discovered here the walls of the fortress, which in some places reached a height of up to 20 m. In Toprah-Kale, the foundation of a temple made of large blocks of limestone was excavated.

The walls of the front rooms were lined with ornamented marble friezes, as indicated by the finds of I. A. Orbeli in Toprah-Kale. A number of fortresses from the Urartian period were also discovered on the territory of Soviet Armenia. Among them, a fortress excavated on the Karmir-Blur hill, near Yerevan, stands out. This fortress apparently protected the borders of the Urartian state from the north. An examination of the remains of the fortress on the Arin-berd hill showed that the lower part of the walls, up to 2-3 m in height, was made of hewn slabs of basalt and tuff.

The lack of documents does not allow us to talk in detail about the economic life and social structure of the ancient Urartians. There is no doubt that development agriculture and various crafts caused the division of labor, specialization in production, the emergence of surplus products and contributed to the emergence of ancient forms of trade. The development of trade among the Urartians is evidenced by some well-preserved remains of roads built in the mountains.

As in other ancient Eastern countries, in Urartu the main form of labor exploitation was primitive slavery. The state power owned a large amount of land, which was under the direct control of the king himself. Urartian inscriptions often report that when constructing cities and fortresses, kings ordered large irrigation works to be carried out immediately, canals and reservoirs to be built in order to transform apparently previously empty lands into agricultural areas, moreover, to plant gardens and vineyards here.

Large granaries and wine cellars were built in the fortresses, the remains of which were discovered during excavations at Karmir-Blura. Obviously, large royal estates were located near these fortified cities. In the inscriptions, some areas are directly designated as “belonging” to the king. Along with the large royal estates, there were also large temple estates. Particularly large wealth was concentrated in the temple of the god Khald in the city of Musasir. This temple may have owned a large amount of land and livestock.

Expansion of the stateFinally, there is reason to believe that a slave-owning aristocracy was formed in Urartu, which included, judging by Assyrian inscriptions, “nobles”, “advisers”, “regional rulers” and “military leaders”. The bulk of the population were free labor masses of community members and slaves. The inscriptions of the Urartian kings speak of the capture of a large number of captives, “boys and youths”, enslaved, as well as the deportation into slavery in Urartu of a large number of people, in particular women, in some cases, perhaps the population of entire regions occupied by the Urartian troops.

Captives captured during the conquest of neighboring countries were usually enslaved. Excavations of an Urartian city near Yerevan showed that the inhabitants of the city did not have their own household and, obviously, received in-kind allowances from the state. There is every reason to assume, as B.B. Piotrovsky does, that the inhabitants of the city included officials, warriors and artisans, as well as numerous slaves who cultivated state lands located around the city.

The growth of productive forces led to a significant development of trade both within the country and with neighboring countries. The country of Urartu, located between the Caucasus, Asia Minor, Northern Mesopotamia and Northwestern Iran, could serve as an intermediary in trade that united the countries of the northern part of Western Asia. Excavations in Transcaucasia and even in the North Caucasus have revealed a number of objects of Central Asian origin, which, apparently, were brought here by Urartian traders, colonists or warriors.

Bronze bracelets were found in Transcaucasian burial grounds, the weight of which is related to the main measure of weight in Western Asia - the mine. Gold objects of Western Asian origin were discovered in the burial grounds of Nagorno-Karabakh. An agate bead with a wedge-shaped inscription containing the name of the Assyrian king Adad-Nirari was found in the Khojaly burial ground. Finally, Egyptian inscriptions say that wood for chariots came from Naharina, with one surviving Egyptian chariot made from wood brought from Urartu.

Conquests of the kings of Urartu

The development of the economy of the state of Urartu required constant influx new slaves. The Urartian kings wage stubborn wars with neighboring countries in order to capture booty and slaves. These wars led to an inevitable clash between Urartu and Assyria, which dominated the northern part of Western Asia and claimed to seize all trade and all resources in these mountainous countries.

The first known campaigns against the “country of Uruatri” were undertaken by the Assyrian king Shalmaneser I in the 13th century BC From this time on, the Assyrian kings made frequent campaigns against Urartu. They do not limit themselves to seizing rich booty, stealing livestock and captives, and devastating the country. They impose taxes on the defeated and force them to make “offerings.” Listing the conquered countries in their titles, the Assyrian kings sometimes called themselves not only “the king of the country of Shubari,” but also “the king of all countries of Nairi.”

In the 9th century. BC A fairly strong Urartian state is formed, which poses a real threat to Assyrian trade and the northern borders of the Assyrian state. Shalmaneser III(859-825 BC) had to wage a long and stubborn struggle with the Urartians, and Assyrian troops repeatedly penetrated their country. Shalmaneser III describes his victories over the Urartians in his chronicle.

Vivid pictures of these campaigns, images of the storming of Urartian fortresses, the removal of numerous captives and the theft of captured livestock were preserved on the bronze lining of the Balavat Gate and on the black obelisk, which date specifically to this time. As a result of these campaigns, Assyrian troops managed to penetrate all the way to the northern part of the country of Urartu, to the sources of the Euphrates and Araxes rivers, break through to lakes Van and Urmia and devastate large areas.

However, the Assyrians failed to completely defeat the country of Urartu. In continuous battles with the Assyrians, the state of Urartu strengthened, around which a number of tribes united. The Urartian king Sarduri I managed to repel the Assyrian troops. Under him, an impregnable fortress was built at the Van Rock. Sarduri I, who headed the state of Urartu, proudly calls himself “the great king, the mighty king, the king of the universe, the king of the country of Nairi, the king of kings.” The Urartian kings Ipshuina and Menua, who ruled at the end of the 9th century. and at the beginning of the 8th century, they laid the foundations for the future power of the Urartian kingdom.

In the first half of the 8th century. BC Urartu under the kings Argishti and Sarduri II reaches its highest peak. The Urartian kings wage a number of successful wars, conquer large areas of Transcaucasia, seize territories along the middle reaches of the Euphrates and advance into the region of Syria. The Urartian kings waged a particularly stubborn struggle against the Mana tribal union, which was located in the area of Lake Urmia. The kings of Urartu, after long wars, manage to advance north of Lake Urmia, conquer part of the country of Mana and even build fortresses there to house their garrisons. Menua reports in his inscription about the conquest of the country of Mana and the construction of a fortress in the conquered country.

The chronicles of Argishti I and Sarduri II speak of frequent campaigns in the country of Mana, the capture of numerous captives there and the theft of livestock. Thus, Urartu becomes not only a rival of Assyria in the northern part of Western Asia, but for some time even becomes the main force here, pushing Assyria into second place. The Urartian king Argishti (781-760 BC) emerges victorious from the fight against Assyria, defeating the Assyrian king Ashurdan. Argishti expands the northern borders of the Urartian kingdom, conquers the country of Etiuni, located in Transcaucasia, and moves the center of the state north through the Araks in Transcaucasia, to the city of Argishtikhinili, which was located near the modern village of Armavir.

The kings of Ipshuin and Menua wage successful wars with neighboring tribes and expand the borders of the state. They firmly secured the territory between lakes Van and Urmia, conquered areas adjacent to the southern shore of Lake Urmia, and carried out aggressive campaigns to the north, into the plain of the Araks River. Menua (810-781 BC) reports in his inscriptions about the conquest of the country of Urmia and the capture of the city of Shashiluni, located east of the Euphrates. Urartian kings built cities, fortresses, temples, and laid canals. This extensive construction reflects the beginning of the prosperity of the country of Urartu.

Ipshuina built a temple 7 km from Van, as stated in the inscriptions on the bases of the columns kept in the Georgian Museum. Menua built a number of fortifications on the approaches to the capital of the state Tushpa, completed the construction of the walls of the Van fortress, built powerful fortifications in the northern part of the country and built the famous canal that supplied the capital with drinking water. An inscription was found 10 km from Van, stored in the Georgian Museum, which mentions the construction of the palace by King Menua, the son of Ipshuina.

Sarduri II (760-730 BC) continued the victorious campaigns of his father Argishti. He reports in some detail about his campaigns, which he carried out over eight years, in his chronicle, the text of which was found in Van and published in 1922. Judging by this interesting chronicle, Sarduri II strengthened his power in the Urmiysk region, made campaigns in the country Erakh, located northwest of Lake Sevan, went to war in Transcaucasia and even in Northern Syria and, thus, widely expanded the borders of the Urartian kingdom.

This time was the heyday of not only the political, but also the economic power of the country of Urartu. Sarduri II reports in his inscription about the conquest of rich agricultural, well-plowed areas, the capture of a huge number of livestock, the delivery of valuable metals, gold, silver, lead and bronze, and finally, the capture of a large number of captives who were enslaved. Other inscriptions from the same king tell of the construction activities of Sarduri; about the restoration of a temple, apparently near Armavir, about the construction of a water supply system in the same area and about the restoration of the palace. All this clearly indicates that in this era the Urartian culture began to penetrate into the Araks valley, conquered by the Urartian kings.

Judging by the inscription found on the Arin-berd hill (near Yerevan), Argishti I built a “powerful fortress” here, calling it “the city of Irpuni”. As an archaeological survey showed, the fortress occupied an area of about 6 hectares. It is possible that this fortress had not only military, but also administrative significance. In the ruins of the fortress, large water pipes made of tuff were discovered, and in one of the rooms - the remains of collapsed, once richly ornamented and brightly colored wall paintings. There are some reasons to believe that urban buildings were located around the fortress.

The next Urartian king, Ruse I (730-714 BC) had to wage a stubborn struggle to restore the former power of the Urartian kingdom and for the complete conquest of the regions of Transcaucasia. Therefore, Rusa I builds a number of fortresses in the Nor-Bayazet region. At the same time, Rusa suppressed the rebellion within the country, which was raised by the governors of the border regions, who were trying to form independent principalities, taking advantage of the weakening of the Urartian state. Obviously, in connection with this, the old administrative centers of the Urartians in Transcaucasia, such as Argishtikhinili, were replaced by new ones.

Somewhat later, in the 7th century. BC, Teishebaini became a major administrative center of the Urartians in Transcaucasia, the ruins of which were discovered on Karmir-Blur, near Yerevan. However, the strengthened Urartian state posed a great threat even to powerful Assyria. The Urartian kings formed large coalitions, which included states and tribal unions of Transcaucasia, Northern Syria and eastern Asia Minor.

In the Urartians and other northern peoples, the Assyrians encountered dangerous rivals who threatened their trade routes and the borders of their state. Therefore, in the middle of the 8th century. BC e. Assyria mobilizes its forces against the Urartian kingdom and its allies. Tiglath-pileser III makes two campaigns in Urartu and inflicts serious defeats on the Urartian troops.

At the end of the 8th century. BC Assyria is growing stronger again. Sargon II in 714 BC. manages to make a successful campaign against Urartu and defeat the troops of Rus. However, the Assyrians were unable to completely suppress the Urartian kingdom. The Urartian people are waging a courageous struggle against the Assyrian conquerors.

Despite the fact that Sargon II defeated the Urartian troops, devastated the entire country, captured and plundered the rich Urartian city of Musasir, the state of Urartu still retained its independence. Moreover, the resistance of the Urartians was perhaps one of the reasons for the weakening of Assyria, which in 605 fell under the blows of the united enemies of the Assyrian kingdom. Urartu retained its independence even after the fall of Assyria. Only in the VI century. BC Urartu loses its independence and collapses under the blows and.

Culture of Urartu

The Urartian culture has still been little studied, but it is now absolutely clear that the Urartians created a high culture, closely connected with the cultural creativity of other peoples of Western Asia, and thereby made a valuable contribution to the treasury of world culture. Many features of the Urartian culture are highly original.

The Urartians had their own ancient hieroglyphic writing, some pictorial signs of which were found on individual objects and on one clay tablet. Their architecture and metallurgy reached high perfection. From an artistic point of view, the image of the Musasir temple preserved on the walls of Sargon’s palace is of particular interest. This temple was built in the 9th-8th centuries. BC on a high platform.

With my gable roof, with a pediment and six columns that adorned the facade, it vividly resembles ancient Greek buildings, perhaps being their Central Asian prototype. The use of columns in architecture is indicated by preserved bases, some of which are kept in the Georgian Museum. The high development of metallurgy is reflected in a number of artistic bronze products.

Among them, sculptural parts of luxurious thrones stand out, reproducing the figures of winged bulls with a human face. These elegantly crafted objects were cast from bronze using a wax model, additionally modeled using embossing and covered with the finest gold leaf, which plastically reproduced all the ornamental details of the bronze base. Faces made of white stone, inlaid eyes and eyebrows, and wing indentations decorated with red paste created a vibrant colorful effect. This kind of expressive works of Urartian metallurgical sculpture occupied a very special place in the art of ancient Eastern peoples.

Some idea of Urartian painting is given by the remains of wall paintings discovered on the Arin-berd hill in the ruins of a fortress built in the 8th century. BC e. Judging by these fragments, an original multicolored frieze up to 1 m high adorned the walls of the ancient hall. This frieze consisted of images of running goats, the sacred tree of life, near which people stood praying, bulls, winged disks, and finally, floral and geometric patterns. These artistic subjects are typical of ancient Eastern art, but at the same time they are distinguished by some originality, characteristic of the entire Urartian culture.

The art of Urartu was reminiscent of Assyrian examples, but their mosaics and frescoes looked more “alive” compared to their southern neighbor

The Urartians were able to use the high achievements of the Assyro-Babylonian civilization. They borrowed cuneiform from the Assyrians, but simplified and somewhat improved it. Metallurgy and fine art of the Urartians developed in close connection with technology metal production And artistic creativity Assyrians and Hittites. Artistic images of winged bulls were preserved in the art of a number of peoples of Western Asia: the Assyrians, Hittites and Mitannians.

Urartu influenced the development of the culture of neighboring peoples, in particular the Assyrians. Urartian culture had an undoubted influence on the development of Assyrian metallurgy and Assyrian art. The Urartians had a particularly strong cultural influence on the development of the neighboring peoples of Transcaucasia. On the territory of Armenia there are preserved ruins of fortresses built under the influence of Urartian architecture. The Urartian language, religion and mythology, preserving many features of the Assyro-Babylonian culture, had a great influence on the development of the culture of the ancient Armenian people.

The Urartian religion went all the way from ancient fetishism and the cult of nature to the cult of the gods - the patrons of the king and the state. The Urartians idolized trees and especially mountains. One of the epithets of the god Khald was “Mount Khald.” In the list of Urartian gods ( Mher Kapusi) the gate of Hald and the gods of the gate of Hald are mentioned. Obviously, this refers to niches carved into the rocks, through which, according to the religious views of the Urartians, the deity who lived in the mountain emerged from the sacred rock. The cult of the sacred tree was also widespread in the country of Urartu.

On various objects of authority, on seal impressions, scenes of worship of the sacred tree were preserved, and this ritual was sometimes performed by the king himself. It is characteristic to note that near the image of the sacred tree, images of sacred stone pillars, as well as a griffin, have been preserved. Along with the cult of the god of Mount Khalda in Urartu, there was also a cult of the goddess of nature and fertility, who was considered the patroness of animals and plants. A prominent place in the Urartian pantheon was occupied by the god of thunder and storm Teisheba and the sun god Ard.

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