SOCIETY
Society and nature
Culture and civilization
The most important institutions of society
society- This certain group of people
Can be determined society and how big
society and nature.
Society and nature
culture
1. “Exactly
the question arose about legal protection of nature .
Legal protection of nature
.
.
Public relations
Play an important role in the functioning of society public relations. This concept denotes the diverse connections that arise between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them in the process of economic, social, political, cultural life and activity.
Material social relations develop in the sphere of production, in the course of practical activities. Material relations are divided into production, environmental and office relations.
Spiritual Relationships are formed as a result of the interaction of people in the process of creating and disseminating spiritual and cultural values. They are divided into moral, political, legal, artistic, philosophical and religious social relations.
A special type of social relations are interpersonal(i.e. relationships between individuals).
Evolution and revolution
There are two main ways of change - evolution and revolution. Evolution comes from the Latin word for “unfolding” -
these are slow, constant changes from a previous state. Revolution(from Latin turn, change) is a change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing social system.
At first glance, revolution differs from evolution only in the pace of change. However, in philosophy there is a point of view about the relationship between these two phenomena: the increase in quantitative changes in development (evolution) ultimately leads to a qualitative change (revolution).
In this regard, the concept is close to the evolutionary path in social development reform. Reform- this is a transformation, reorganization, change in any aspect of social life that does not destroy the foundations of the existing social structure.
Reforms in Marxism were opposed to political revolution, as an active political action of the masses, leading to the transfer of the leadership of society into the hands of a new class. At the same time, revolutions have always been recognized as a more radical and progressive path of transformation in Marxism, and reforms have been viewed as half-hearted, painful for the masses, transformations, which for the most part were supposedly caused by the potential threat of revolution. Revolutions are inevitable and natural in a society where timely reforms are not carried out.
However, political revolutions usually lead to great social upheaval and casualties. Some scientists generally denied revolutions the possibility of creative activity. Thus, one of the historians of the 19th century compared the Great French Revolution with a hammer that only smashed old clay molds, revealing to the world the already cast bell of a new social system. That is, in his opinion, a new social system was born in the course of evolutionary transformations, and the revolution only swept away obstacles for it,
On the other hand, history knows reforms that led to radical changes in society. F. Engels, for example, called Bismarck's reforms in Germany a “revolution from above.” The reforms of the late 80s and early 90s can also be considered a “revolution from above.” XX century, which led to a change in the existing system in our country.
Modern Russian scientists have recognized the equivalence of reforms and revolutions. At the same time, there was criticism of revolutions as an extremely ineffective, bloody path, replete with numerous costs and leading to dictatorship. Moreover, great reforms (i.e. revolutions from above) are recognized as the same social anomalies as great revolutions. Both of these ways of solving social contradictions are opposed to the normal, healthy practice of “permanent reform in a self-regulating society.”
Both reforms and revolutions treat an already advanced disease (the former with therapeutic methods, the latter with surgical intervention. Therefore, constant innovation– as a one-time, one-time improvement associated with increasing the adaptability of society to changing conditions. In this sense, innovation is similar to preventing the occurrence of a disease (i.e., social contradiction). Innovation in this regard belongs to the evolutionary path of development.
This point view comes from possibilities for alternative social development. Neither the revolutionary nor the evolutionary path of development can be accepted as the only natural one.
Culture and civilization for a long time were identified. However Culture and civilization
Already in the 19th century, the scientific meaning of these concepts differed. And at the beginning of XX
century, German philosopher O. Spengler in his work “The Decline of Europe”
and completely opposed them. Civilization appeared to him as the highest stage of culture, at which its final decline occurs. Culture is a civilization that has not reached its maturity and has not ensured its growth.
The differences between the concepts of “culture” and “civilization” were also emphasized by other thinkers. Thus, N.K. Roerich reduced the difference between culture and civilization to the opposition of heart to mind. He connected culture with the self-organization of the spirit, the world of spirituality, and civilization with the civil, social structure of our life. Indeed, the word “culture” goes back to Latin word, meaning cultivation, cultivation, processing. However, the word education, veneration, as well as cult (as worship and veneration of something) also goes back to the same root (cult-). The word “civilization” comes from the Latin civilis – civil, state, but the word “citizen, city dweller” also goes back to the same root.
Culture is the core, the soul, and civilization is the shell, the body. P.K. Grechko believes that civilization fixes the level and result of the progressive development of society, and culture expresses the mechanism and process of mastering this level - the result. Civilization develops the earth, our life, makes it convenient, comfortable, and pleasant. Culture is “responsible” for constant dissatisfaction with what has been achieved, the search for something unattainable, worthy primarily of the soul, not the body. Culture is the process of humanization of social relations and human life, while civilization is their gradual but steady technologization.
Without culture, civilization cannot exist, because the system of cultural values is the feature that distinguishes one civilization from another. However, culture is a complex concept; it includes the culture of production, material relations, political culture and spiritual values. Depending on which feature we highlight as the main criterion, the division of civilizations into separate types also changes.
Types of civilization
Depending on their concept and put forward criteria, various researchers offer their own versions of the typology of civilization.
Types of civilizations
However, in journalistic literature the division into civilizations has been widely established Western (innovative, rationalistic) and Eastern (traditional) type. Sometimes so-called intermediate civilizations are added to them. What features characterize them? Let's look at this using the following table as an example.
Main features of traditional society and Western society
| Traditional society | Western society |
| “Continuity” of the historical process, the absence of obvious boundaries between individual eras, sharp shifts and shocks | History moves unevenly, in “jumps,” the gaps between eras are obvious, transitions from one to another often take the form of revolutions |
| Inapplicability of the concept of linear progress | Social progress is quite obvious, especially in the sphere of material production |
| The relationship of society to nature is built on the principle of merging with it, and not dominating it. | Society strives to make maximum use of natural resources for its needs |
| Warp economic system– community-state forms of ownership with weak development of the institution of private property | The basis of the economy is private property. Property rights are considered natural and inalienable |
| The level of social mobility is low, the barriers between castes and classes are poorly permeable | Social mobility of the population is high; a person’s social status can change significantly throughout life |
| The state subjugates society and controls many aspects of people's lives. A community (state, ethnic group, social group) has priority over an individual | A civil society has emerged, largely autonomous from the state. Individual rights are a priority and are constitutionally enshrined. Relations between the individual and society are built on the principles of mutual responsibility. |
| The main regulator of social life is tradition, custom | The readiness for change and innovation is of particular value. |
Modern civilizations
There are civilizations on Earth today different types. In remote corners of the planet, the development of a number of peoples still retained the features of a primitive society, where life was entirely subordinated to natural cycle(Central Africa, Amazonia, Oceania, etc.). Some peoples have retained the features of eastern (traditional) civilizations in their way of life. The influence of post-industrial society on these countries is reflected in the growth of crisis phenomena and instability of life.
Active propaganda by the media of the values of a post-industrial society, elevating them to the rank of universal human values causes a certain negative reaction from traditional civilizations seeking not only to preserve their values, but also to revive the values of the bygone past.
Thus, the Arab-Islamic civilization includes Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, UAE, Saudi Arabia etc. Between individual Islamic countries and even within these countries, the struggle between supporters of rapprochement with Western civilization and Islamic fundamentalists is intensifying. If the former allow the expansion of secular education, the rationalization of life, the widespread introduction of modern achievements of science and technology, then the latter believe that the basis (foundation) of all spheres of life are the religious values of Islam and take an aggressive position in relation to any innovations and borrowings from Western civilization.
The Hindu-Buddhist civilization includes India, Mongolia, Nepal, Thailand, etc. The traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism predominate here, and religious tolerance is characteristic. In these countries, on the one hand, economic and political structures characteristic of an industrial society have developed, on the other, a significant part of the population lives by the values of a traditional society.
The Far Eastern Confucian civilization includes China, Korea, Japan, etc. The cultural traditions of Taoism, Confucianism and Shinto predominate here. Despite the preserved traditions, these countries are recent years developed Western countries are also drawing closer together (especially in the economic sphere).
What type of civilizational development can Russia be classified as? There are several points of view in science on this matter:
Russia is a European country and Russian civilization close to the Western type, although it has its own characteristics;
Russia is an original and self-sufficient civilization, occupying its own special place in the world. This is neither eastern nor western, but a Eurasian civilization, which is characterized by super-ethnicity, intercultural exchange, and the supranational nature of spiritual values;
Russia is an internally split, “pendulum” civilization, which is characterized by constant confrontation between Western and eastern features. Its history clearly marks cycles of rapprochement with either Western or Eastern civilizations;
To determine which point of view is more objective, let us turn to the characteristics of Western civilization. Researchers believe that several local civilizations exist within it (Western European, North American, Latin American, etc.). Modern Western civilization is a post-industrial civilization. Its features are determined by the consequences of the scientific and technological revolution (STR), which occurred in the 60-70s. XX century.
Global problems
Global problems of humanity are problems affecting all people living on Earth, on the solution of which not only further social progress, but also the fate of all humanity depends.
Global problems emerged under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution in the second half of the twentieth century; they are interconnected, cover all aspects of people’s lives and affect all countries of the world without exception.
Let us list the main problems and show their relationship with each other.
The threat of a thermonuclear catastrophe is closely related to the threat of nuclear war, as well as man-made disasters. In turn, these problems are interconnected with the threat of a third world war. All this is due to the depletion of traditional sources of raw materials and the search for alternative types energy. Failure to resolve this problem leads to an environmental disaster (depletion natural resources, environmental pollution, food problem, shortage drinking water etc.). The problem of climate change on the planet is acute, which can lead to catastrophic consequences. The environmental crisis, in turn, is associated with a demographic problem. The demographic problem is characterized by a deep contradiction: in developing countries there is intensive population growth, while in developed countries there is a demographic decline, which creates enormous difficulties for economic and social development.
At the same time, the “North-South” problem is worsening, i.e. contradictions between developed countries and developing countries of the “third world” are growing. The problems of protecting health and preventing the spread of AIDS and drug addiction are also becoming increasingly important. Important has the problem of reviving cultural and moral values.
After the events in New York on September 11, 2001, the problem of combating international terrorism. The next innocent victims of terrorists could be residents of any country in the world.
Generally global problems humanity can be schematically represented as a tangle of contradictions, where from each problem various threads stretch to all other problems. What is it strategy for the survival of humanity in the face of worsening global problems? Solving global problems is only possible through the joint efforts of all countries coordinating their actions at the international level. Self-isolation and development features will not allow individual countries to remain aloof from the economic crisis, nuclear war, the threat of terrorism or the AIDS epidemic. To solve global problems and overcome the danger that threatens all humanity, it is necessary to further strengthen the interconnection of diverse modern world, changing interaction with the environment, abandoning the cult of consumption, developing new values.
In preparing this chapter, materials from the following textbooks were used:
- Grechko P.K. Introduction to social studies. – M.: Pomatur, 2000.
- Kravchenko A.I. Social science. – M.: “ Russian word– RS” - 2001.
- Kurbatov V.I. Social science. – Rostov-on-Don: “Phoenix”, 1999.
- Man and Society: A textbook on social studies for students in grades 10-11/Ed. L.N. Bogolyubova, A.Yu. Lazebnikova. M., 2001
- Lazebnikova A.Yu. Modern school social studies. Questions of theory and methodology. – M.: School – Press, 2000.
- Klimenko A.V., Romanina V.V. Social Studies Exam: Answer Notes. – M.: 2000.
- Social science. 100 exam answers./Ed. B.Yu. Serbinovsky. Rostov-on-Don: “Mar.T”, 2000.
SOCIETY
Society as a dynamic system
Society and nature
Culture and civilization
The relationship between the economic, social, political and spiritual spheres of society
The most important institutions of society
Diversity of ways and forms of social development
The Problem of Social Progress
The integrity of the modern world, its contradictions
Global problems of humanity
The concept of “society” has many meanings. In its original meaning, it is a kind of community, union, cooperation, association of individual people.
From a sociological point of view society- This certain group of people, united by common interests (goal) for joint activities (for example, a society for the protection of animals or, conversely, a society of hunters and fishermen).
The historical approach to understanding society is associated with the identification a specific stage in the historical development of a nation or all of humanity(for example: primitive society, medieval society, etc.).
The ethnographic meaning of the concept “society” focuses on ethnic characteristics and cultural traditions of a certain population of people(for example: Bushmen society, society American Indians etc.).
Can be determined society and how big a stable group of people occupying a certain territory, having a common culture, experiencing a sense of unity and considering themselves as a completely independent entity(for example, Russian society, European society, etc.).
What unites the above interpretations of society?
- society consists of individual people with will and consciousness;
- You can't just call a certain number of people a society. People are united in society by joint activities, common interests and goals;
- any society is a way of organizing human life;
- The connecting link of society, its framework, are the connections established between people in the process of their interaction (social relations).
Society as complex dynamic system
In general, a system is a collection of interconnected elements. For example, a pile of bricks cannot be called a system, but a house built from them is a system where each brick takes its place, is interconnected with other elements, has its own functional meaning and serves a common goal - the existence of a durable, warm, beautiful building. But a building is an example of a static system. After all, a house cannot improve or develop on its own (it can only collapse if the functional connections between the elements - the bricks) are broken.
An example of a dynamic self-developing system is a living organism. Already in the embryo of any living organism there are basic characteristics that, under the influence of the environment, determine the significant aspects of changes in the organism throughout life.
Likewise, society is a complex dynamic system that can only exist by constantly changing, but at the same time maintaining its main features and qualitative certainty.
There is also a broad, philosophical point of view on society.
Society is a form of organization of individuals that arose in opposition to environment(nature), lives and develops according to its own objective laws. In this sense, society is a set of forms of association of people, a “collective of collectives,” all of humanity in its past, present and future.
Based on this broad interpretation, let us consider the relationship society and nature.
Society and nature
Both society and nature are part of the real world. Nature is the basis on which society arose and develops. If we understand nature as the whole of reality, the world as a whole, then society is a part of it. But often the word “nature” refers to the natural habitat of people. With this understanding of nature, society can be considered as a part of the real world separated from it. But society and nature have not lost their relationship. This relationship has always existed, but has changed over the centuries.
Once upon a time in primitive times small societies of hunters and gatherers were completely dependent on the disasters of nature. Trying to protect themselves from these disasters, people created culture, as the totality of all material and spiritual values of society that have artificial (i.e. not natural) origin. Below we will talk more than once about the diversity of the concept of “culture”. Now let us emphasize that culture is something that is created by society, but is opposite to the natural environment, nature. Thus, the production of the first tools and the skills of making fire are the first cultural achievements of mankind. The emergence of agriculture and cattle breeding are also the fruits of culture (the word culture itself comes from the Latin “tillage”, “cultivation”).
1. “Exactly Because of the dangers that nature threatens us with, we united and created a culture, designed, among other things, to make our social life possible. – wrote S. Freud. “In the end, the main task of culture, the true justification, is to protect us from nature.”
2. As cultural achievements developed, society was no longer so dependent on nature. At the same time society did not adapt to nature, but actively changed the environment, transforming it in its own interests. This change in nature has led to impressive results. Let's remember thousands of species of cultivated plants, new species of animals, drained swamps and blooming deserts. However, society transforming nature, exposing it to cultural influence, often guided by short-term benefits. Yes, first environmental problems began to arise in ancient times: many species of plants and animals completely disappeared, most of the forests in Western Europe were cut down in the Middle Ages. In the 20th century negative impact society's response to nature has become especially noticeable. Now we are talking about an environmental disaster that could lead to the destruction of both nature and society. That's why the question arose about legal protection of nature .
The protection of the natural environment means the preservation of its quality, which makes it possible, firstly, to preserve, protect and restore the healthy state and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem, and secondly, to preserve the biological diversity of the planet.
Environmental law deals with the legal protection of nature. Ecology (from the word “ecos” - house, residence; and “logos” knowledge) is the science of the interaction of man and society with the natural environment.
The environmental legislation of the Russian Federation includes a number of provisions of the Constitution, 5 federal laws on environmental protection, 11 natural resource legislative acts, as well as decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation, etc.
Legal protection of nature
So in the Constitution of the Russian Federation in Art. 42 talks about the right of every person to a favorable environment and to reliable information about its condition. Article 58 speaks of the obligation of everyone to preserve nature and the environment, and to take care of the natural resources of Russia.
The federal laws “On the Protection of the Natural Environment” (1991), “On Environmental Expertise” (1995), “On the Protection of Atmospheric Air” (1999), etc. are devoted to the legal protection of nature. Attempts are being made to conclude an international treaty on the protection of nature. On December 12, 1997, the International Protocol on the Regulation of Emissions of Industrial Wastes into the Atmosphere (Kyoto Protocol) was signed in the city of Kyoto.
Thus, the relationship between nature, society and culture can be described as follows:
society and nature in interrelation form the material world. However, society isolated itself from nature, creating culture as a second artificial nature, a new habitat. However, even having protected itself from nature with a kind of boundary of cultural traditions, society is not able to sever ties with nature.
V.I. Vernadsky wrote that with the advent and development of society the biosphere (the earth's shell covered by life) passes into the noosphere (the area of the planet covered by intelligent human activity).
Nature still has an active impact on society. Thus, A.L. Chizhevsky established a relationship between the cycles of solar activity and social upheavals in society (wars, uprisings, revolutions, social transformations, etc.). L. N. Gumilyov wrote about the impact of nature on society in his work “Ethnogenesis and the Earth’s Biosphere.”
The relationship between society and nature we see in various manifestations. So, improvement agrotechnical techniques soil cultivation leads to increased productivity, but Increased air pollution from industrial waste can lead to plant death.
Society is a complex dynamic system.
Society as a complex dynamic system. Public relations
The existence of people in society is characterized by various forms of life activity and communication. Everything that is created in society is the result of the combined joint activities of many generations of people. Actually, society itself is a product of interaction between people; it exists only where and when people are connected with each other by common interests.
In philosophical science, many definitions of the concept “society” are offered. In the narrow sense society can be understood as a certain group of people united to communicate and jointly perform any activity, or a specific stage in the historical development of a people or country.
In a broad sense society — it is a part of the material world isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which consists of individuals with will and consciousness, and includes ways of interaction people and forms of their association.
In philosophical science, society is characterized as a dynamic self-developing system, i.e., a system that is capable of seriously changing and at the same time maintaining its essence and qualitative certainty. In this case, the system is understood as a complex of interacting elements. In turn, an element is some further indecomposable component of the system that is directly involved in its creation.
To analyze complex systems, such as the one that society represents, scientists have developed the concept of “subsystem”. Subsystems are “intermediate” complexes that are more complex than the elements, but less complex than the system itself.
1) economic, the elements of which are material production and relationships that arise between people in the process of production of material goods, their exchange and distribution;
2) social, consisting of such structural formations, as classes, social strata, nations, taken in their relationships and interactions with each other;
3) political, which includes politics, state, law, their relationship and functioning;
4) spiritual, covering various forms and levels of social consciousness, which, being embodied in the real process of social life, form what is commonly called spiritual culture.
Each of these spheres, being an element of the system called “society”, in turn, turns out to be a system in relation to the elements that make it up. All four spheres of social life are not only interconnected, but also mutually determine each other. The division of society into spheres is somewhat arbitrary, but it helps to isolate and study individual areas of a truly integral society, diverse and complex social life.
Sociologists offer several classifications of society. Societies are:
a) pre-written and written;
b) simple and complex (the criterion in this typology is the number of levels of management of society, as well as the degree of its differentiation: in simple societies there are no leaders and subordinates, rich and poor, and in complex societies there are several levels of management and several social strata of the population, arranged from top to bottom in descending order of income);
c) society of primitive hunters and gatherers, traditional (agrarian) society, industrial society and post-industrial society;
d) primitive society, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society and communist society.
In Western scientific literature in the 1960s. The division of all societies into traditional and industrial became widespread (while capitalism and socialism were considered as two types of industrial society).
The German sociologist F. Tönnies, the French sociologist R. Aron, and the American economist W. Rostow made a great contribution to the formation of this concept.
Traditional (agrarian) society represented the pre-industrial stage of civilizational development. All societies of antiquity and the Middle Ages were traditional. Their economy was characterized by the dominance of rural subsistence farming and primitive crafts. Extensive technology and hand tools prevailed, initially ensuring economic progress. In his production activities, man sought to adapt to the environment as much as possible and obey the rhythms of nature. Property relations were characterized by the dominance of communal, corporate, conditional, and state forms of ownership. Private property was neither sacred nor inviolable. The distribution of material goods and manufactured goods depended on a person’s position in the social hierarchy. The social structure of traditional society is class-based, corporate, stable and immobile. There was virtually no social mobility: a person was born and died, remaining in the same social group. The main social units were the community and the family. Human behavior in society was regulated by corporate norms and principles, customs, beliefs, and unwritten laws. Providentialism dominated in public consciousness: social reality, human life were perceived as the implementation of divine providence.
The spiritual world of a person in a traditional society, his system of value orientations, and way of thinking are special and noticeably different from modern ones. Individuality and independence were not encouraged: the social group dictated norms of behavior to the individual. One can even talk about a “group person” who did not analyze his position in the world, and in general rarely analyzed the phenomena of the surrounding reality. He rather moralizes and evaluates life situations from the perspective of his social group. The number of educated people was extremely limited (“literacy for the few”), oral information prevailed over written information. The political sphere of a traditional society is dominated by the church and the army. The person is completely alienated from politics. Power seems to him to be of greater value than right and law. In general, this society is extremely conservative, stable, impervious to innovations and impulses from the outside, representing a “self-sustaining self-regulating immutability.” Changes in it occur spontaneously, slowly, without the conscious intervention of people. The spiritual sphere of human existence has priority over the economic one.
Traditional societies have survived to this day mainly in the countries of the so-called “third world” (Asia, Africa) (therefore, the concept of “non-Western civilizations”, which also claims to be well-known sociological generalizations, is often synonymous with “traditional society”). From a Eurocentric point of view, traditional societies are backward, primitive, closed, unfree social organisms, to which Western sociology contrasts industrial and post-industrial civilizations.
As a result of modernization, understood as a complex, contradictory, complex process of transition from a traditional society to an industrial one, in countries Western Europe The foundations of a new civilization were laid. They call her industrial, technogenic, scientific and technical or economic. The economic basis of an industrial society is industry based on machine technology. The volume of fixed capital increases, long-term average costs per unit of output decrease. In agriculture, labor productivity increases sharply and natural isolation is destroyed. Extensive farming is being replaced by intensive farming, and simple reproduction is being replaced by expanded farming. All these processes occur through the implementation of the principles and structures of a market economy, based on scientific and technological progress. Man is freed from direct dependence on nature and partially subjugates it to himself. Stable economic growth is accompanied by an increase in real income per capita. If the pre-industrial period is filled with fear of hunger and disease, then industrial society is characterized by an increase in the well-being of the population. In the social sphere of industrial society, traditional structures and social barriers are also collapsing. Social mobility is significant. As a result of the development of agriculture and industry, the share of the peasantry in the population is sharply reduced, and urbanization occurs. New classes emerge—the industrial proletariat and the bourgeoisie—and the middle strata become stronger. The aristocracy is in decline.
In the spiritual sphere, there is a significant transformation of the value system. A person in a new society is autonomous within a social group and is guided by his own personal interests. Individualism, rationalism (a person analyzes the world around us and makes decisions on this basis) and utilitarianism (a person acts not in the name of some global goals, but for a specific benefit) are new coordinate systems for the individual. There is a secularization of consciousness (liberation from direct dependence on religion). A person in an industrial society strives for self-development and self-improvement. Global changes also occur in the political sphere. The role of the state is sharply increasing, and a democratic regime is gradually taking shape. Law and law dominate in society, and a person is involved in power relations as an active subject.
A number of sociologists somewhat clarify the above diagram. From their point of view, the main content of the modernization process is a change in the model (stereotype) of behavior, in the transition from irrational (characteristic of a traditional society) to rational (characteristic of an industrial society) behavior. The economic aspects of rational behavior include the development of commodity-money relations, the determining role of money as a general equivalent of values, the displacement of barter transactions, the wide scope of market transactions, etc. The most important social consequence of modernization is considered to be a change in the principle of distribution of roles. Previously, society imposed sanctions on social choice, limiting the possibility of a person occupying certain social positions depending on his membership in a certain group (origin, birth, nationality). After modernization, a rational principle of distribution of roles is established, in which the main and only criterion for occupying a particular position is the candidate’s preparedness to perform these functions.
Thus, industrial civilization opposes traditional society on all fronts. Most modern industrialized countries (including Russia) are classified as industrial societies.
But modernization gave rise to many new contradictions, which over time turned into global problems (ecological, energy, and other crises). By resolving them and progressively developing, some modern societies are approaching the stage of post-industrial society, the theoretical parameters of which were developed in the 1970s. American sociologists D. Bell, E. Toffler and others. This society is characterized by the foregrounding of the service sector, the individualization of production and consumption, and an increase in specific gravity small-scale production with the loss of dominant positions to mass production, the leading role of science, knowledge and information in society. In the social structure of post-industrial society, there is an erasure of class differences, and the convergence of income levels of various population groups leads to the elimination of social polarization and an increase in the share of the middle class. The new civilization can be characterized as anthropogenic, with man and his individuality at its center. Sometimes it is also called information, which reflects the increasing dependence of everyday life of society on information. The transition to a post-industrial society for most countries of the modern world is a very distant prospect.
In the course of his activity, a person enters into various relationships with other people. Such diverse forms of interaction between people, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them), are usually called social relations.
All social relations can be divided into two large groups- material relationships and spiritual (or ideal) relationships. Fundamental difference The difference between them is that material relations arise and develop directly in the course of a person’s practical activity, outside of a person’s consciousness and independently of him, and spiritual relationships are formed by first “passing through the consciousness” of people and are determined by their spiritual values. In turn, material relations are divided into production, environmental and office relations; spiritual to moral, political, legal, artistic, philosophical and religious social relations.
A special type of social relations are interpersonal relations. Under interpersonal relationships understand the relationships between individuals. At In this case, individuals, as a rule, belong to different social strata, have different cultural and educational levels, but they are united by common needs and interests in the sphere of leisure or everyday life. The famous sociologist Pitirim Sorokin highlighted the following types interpersonal interaction:
a) between two individuals (husband and wife, teacher and student, two comrades);
b) between three individuals (father, mother, child);
c) between four, five or more people (the singer and his listeners);
d) between many, many people (members of an unorganized crowd).
Interpersonal relationships arise and are realized in society and are social relationships even if they are of the nature of purely individual communication. They act as a personalized form of social relations.
The concept of society covers all spheres of human life, relationships and interconnections. At the same time, society does not stand still; it is subject to constant change and development. Let's learn briefly about society - a complex, dynamically developing system.
Features of society
Society as a complex system has its own characteristics that distinguish it from other systems. Let's look at what has been discovered by different sciences. features :
- complex, multi-level nature
Society includes different subsystems and elements. It can include various social groups, both small ones - family, and large ones - class, nation.
Social subsystems are the main spheres: economic, social, political, spiritual. Each of them is also a unique system with many elements. Thus, we can say that there is a hierarchy of systems, that is, society is divided into elements, which, in turn, also include several components.
- presence of different quality elements: material (equipment, structures) and spiritual, ideal (ideas, values)
For example, the economic sphere includes transport, structures, materials for the manufacture of goods, and knowledge, norms, and rules in force in the sphere of production.
- the main element is man
Man is a universal element of all social systems, since he is included in each of them, and without him their existence is impossible.
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- constant changes, transformations
Of course, in different times the speed of change changed: the established order could be maintained for a long time, but there were also periods when rapid qualitative changes in social life occurred, for example, during revolutions. This is the main difference between society and nature.
- order
All components of society occupy their position and certain connections with other elements. That is, society is an ordered system in which there are many interconnected parts. Elements may disappear and new ones appear in their place, but on the whole the system continues to function in a certain order.
- self-sufficiency
Society as a whole is capable of producing everything necessary for its existence, therefore each element plays its role and cannot exist without the others.
- self-government
Society organizes management, creates institutions to coordinate actions different elements society, that is, creates a system in which all parts can interact. Organizing the activities of each individual and groups of people, as well as exercising control, is a feature of society.
Social institutions
The idea of society cannot be complete without knowledge of its basic institutions.
Social institutions are understood as such forms of organizing the joint activities of people that have developed as a result historical development and are regulated by the norms established in society. They bring together large groups of people engaged in some type of activity.
The activities of social institutions are aimed at meeting needs. For example, people’s need for procreation gave rise to the institution of family and marriage, the need for knowledge - the institute of education and science. Average rating: 4.3. Total ratings received: 204.
1. Name any three characteristics of society as a dynamic system.
2. What socio-economic formations do Marxists identify?
3. Name three historical types of society. By what Are they highlighted?
4. There is a statement: “Everything is for man. It is necessary to produce as many goods as possible for him, and for this we have to “invade” nature, violating the natural laws of its development. Either man is his well-being, or nature and her well-being.
There is no third option."
What is your attitude to this judgment? Justify your answer based on knowledge of the social science course, facts of social life and personal experience.
5. Give three examples of the interconnection of global j problems of mankind.
6. Read the text and complete the tasks for it. “Gaining more and more strength, civilization often revealed a clear tendency to impose ideas through missionary activity or direct violence coming from religious, in particular Christian, traditions... Thus, civilization steadily spread across the planet, using all possible ways and means for this - migration, colonization, conquest, trade, industrial development, financial control and cultural influence. Little by little, all countries and peoples began to live according to its laws or created them according to the model established by it...
The development of civilization, however, was accompanied by the flourishing of rosy hopes and illusions that could not be realized... The basis of its philosophy and its actions has always been elitism. And the Earth, no matter how generous it is, is still unable to accommodate the continuously growing population and satisfy more and more of its needs, desires and whims. That is why a new, deeper split has now emerged - between overdeveloped and underdeveloped countries. But even this rebellion of the world proletariat, which seeks to join in the wealth of its more prosperous brethren, takes place within the framework of the same dominant civilization...
It is unlikely that she will be able to withstand this new test, especially now, when her own body is torn apart by numerous ailments. NTR is becoming more and more obstinate, and it is becoming more and more difficult to pacify it. Having endowed us with hitherto unprecedented power and instilled a taste for a level of life that we had never even imagined, NTR sometimes does not give us the wisdom to keep our capabilities and demands under control. And it’s time for our generation to finally understand that now the fate of not individual countries and regions, but of all humanity as a whole depends only on us.”
A. Lenchey
1) What global problems of modern society does the author highlight? List two or three problems.
2) What does the author mean by stating: “Having endowed us with hitherto unprecedented power and instilled a taste for a level of life that we had never even thought about, NTR sometimes does not give us the wisdom to keep our capabilities and demands under control”? Make two guesses.
3) Illustrate with examples (at least three) the author’s statement: “The development of civilization... was accompanied by the flourishing of rosy hopes and illusions that could not come true.”
4) In your opinion, is it possible to overcome the contrast between rich and poor countries in the foreseeable future? Justify your answer.
7. Choose one of the proposed statements and express your thoughts about the problem raised in the form of a short essay.
1. “I am a citizen of the world” (Diogenes of Sinope).
2. “I am too proud of my country to be a nationalist” (J. Voltaire)
3. “Civilization does not consist of more or less sophistication. Not in the consciousness common to an entire people. And this consciousness is never subtle. On the contrary, it is quite healthy. To imagine civilization as the creation of an elite means to identify it with culture, whereas these are completely different things.” (A. Camus).
Consequently, man is a universal element of all social systems, since he is necessarily included in each of them.
Like any system, society is an ordered entity. This means that the components of the system are not in chaotic disorder, but, on the contrary, occupy a certain position within the system and are connected in a certain way with other components. Hence. the system has an integrative quality that is inherent in it as a single whole. None of the system components. considered separately, does not possess this quality. It, this quality, is the result of the integration and interconnection of all components of the system. Just like individual human organs (heart, stomach, liver, etc.) do not possess human properties. Likewise, the economy, health care system, state and other elements of society do not have the qualities that are inherent in society as a whole. And only thanks to the diverse connections that exist between the components of the social system, it turns into a single whole. that is, into society (how, thanks to the interaction of various human organs, a single human organism exists).
The connections between subsystems and elements of society can be illustrated with various examples. The study of the distant past of mankind allowed scientists to conclude that. that the moral relations of people in primitive conditions were built on collectivist principles, i.e. e., saying modern language, priority has always been given to the team rather than to the individual. It is also known that the moral norms that existed among many tribes in those archaic times allowed the killing of weak members of the clan - sick children, old people - and even cannibalism. Have these ideas and views of people about the limits of what is morally permissible been influenced by real material conditions their existence? The answer is clear: undoubtedly, they did. The need to collectively obtain material wealth, the doom of a person cut off from his clan to quick death, laid the foundations of collectivist morality. Guided by the same methods of struggle for existence and survival, people did not consider it immoral to free themselves from those who could become a burden to the collective.
Another example could be the connection between legal norms and socio-economic relations. Let's turn to the famous historical facts. In one of the first codes of laws Kievan Rus, which is called Russian Truth, provides various punishments for murder. In this case, the measure of punishment was determined primarily by a person’s place in the system of hierarchical relations, his belonging to one or another social stratum or group. Thus, the fine for killing a tiun (steward) was enormous: it was 80 hryvnia and equal to the cost of 80 oxen or 400 rams. The life of a serf or serf was valued at 5 hryvnia, i.e. 16 times cheaper.
Integral, i.e., common, inherent in the entire system, qualities of any system are not a simple sum of the qualities of its components, but represent a new quality that arose as a result of the interconnection and interaction of its components. In the very general view This is the quality of society as a social system - the ability to create all the necessary conditions for its existence, to produce everything necessary for the collective life of people. In philosophy, self-sufficiency is considered as the main difference between society and its constituent parts. Just as human organs cannot exist outside of an integral organism, so none of the subsystems of society can exist outside of the whole - society as a system.
Another feature of society as a system is that this system is self-governing.
The managerial function is performed by the political subsystem, which gives coherence to all components that form the social integrity.
Any system, be it technical (a unit with an automatic control system), or biological (animal), or social (society), is located in a certain environment with which it interacts. The environment of the social system of any country is both nature and the world community. Changes in the state of the natural environment, events in the world community, in the international arena are a kind of “signals” to which society must respond. It usually seeks to either adapt to changes occurring in the environment or adapt the environment to its needs. In other words, the system reacts to “signals” in one way or another. At the same time, it implements its main functions: adaptation; goal achievement, i.e. the ability to maintain its integrity, ensuring the implementation of its tasks, influencing the surrounding natural and social environment; maintaining circulation - the ability to maintain one’s internal structure; integration - the ability to integrate, that is, to include new parts, new social formations (phenomena, processes, etc.) into a single whole.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
The most important component of society as a system are social institutions.
The word “institute” comes from the Latin instituto meaning “establishment”. In Russian it is often used to denote higher educational institutions. In addition, as you know from the basic school course, in the field of law the word “institution” means a set of legal norms that regulate one social relationship or several relationships related to each other (for example, the institution of marriage).
In sociology, social institutions are historically established stable forms of organizing joint activities, regulated by norms, traditions, customs and aimed at meeting the fundamental needs of society.
This is a definition that it is advisable to return to after reading to the end educational material on this issue, we will consider based on the concept of “activity” (see - 1). In the history of society, sustainable types of activities have developed aimed at satisfying the most important needs of life. Sociologists identify five such social needs:
the need for reproduction;
need for security and social order;
need for subsistence;
need for knowledge, socialization
the younger generation, personnel training;
- the need to solve spiritual problems of the meaning of life.
In accordance with the above-mentioned needs, types of activities have developed in society, which, in turn, required the necessary organization, streamlining, the creation of certain institutions and other structures, and the development of rules to ensure the achievement of the expected result. These conditions for the successful implementation of the main types of activities were met by historically established social institutions:
institution of family and marriage;
- political institutions, especially the state;
- economic institutions, primarily production;
- institutes of education, science and culture;
- Institute of Religion.
Each of these institutions brings together large masses of people to satisfy a particular need and achieve a specific goal of a personal, group or social nature.
The emergence of social institutions led to the consolidation of specific types of interaction, making them permanent and mandatory for all members of a given society.
So, a social institution is, first of all, a set of persons engaged in a certain type of activity and ensuring, in the process of this activity, the satisfaction of a certain need that is significant for society (for example, all employees of the education system).
Further, the institution is secured by a system of legal and moral norms, traditions and customs that regulate the corresponding types of behavior. (Remember, for example, what social norms regulate the behavior of people in the family).
Another characteristic feature of a social institution is the presence of institutions equipped with certain material resources necessary for any type of activity. (Think about what social institutions the school, factory, and police belong to. Give your own examples of institutions and organizations that belong to each of the most important social institutions.)
Any of these institutions is integrated into the socio-political, legal, value structure of society, which makes it possible to legitimize the activities of this institution and exercise control over it.
A social institution stabilizes social relations and brings consistency into the actions of members of society. A social institution is characterized by a clear delineation of the functions of each of the subjects of interaction, the consistency of their actions, high level regulation and control. (Think about how these features of a social institution manifest themselves in the education system, particularly in school.)
Let us consider the main features of a social institution using the example of such an important institution of society as the family. First of all, every family is a small group of people based on intimacy and emotional attachment, connected by marriage (spouses) and consanguinity (parents and children). The need to create a family is one of the fundamental, i.e. fundamental, human needs. At the same time, the family performs in society important functions: giving birth and raising children, economic support for minors and the disabled, and much more. Each family member occupies a special position in it, which presupposes appropriate behavior: parents (or one of them) provide a livelihood, manage household chores, and raise children. The children, in turn, study and help around the house. This behavior is regulated not only by family rules, but also by social norms: morality and law. Thus, public morality condemns the lack of care of older family members for younger ones. The law establishes the responsibilities and obligations of spouses towards each other, towards children, and adult children towards elderly parents. Starting a family, milestones family life accompanied by established traditions and rituals in society. For example, in many countries, marriage rituals include the exchange of wedding rings between spouses.
The presence of social institutions makes people's behavior more predictable and society as a whole more stable.
In addition to the main social institutions, there are also non-main ones. So, if the main political institution is the state, then the non-main ones are the institution of the judiciary or, as in our country, the institution of presidential representatives in the regions, etc.
The presence of social institutions reliably ensures regular, self-renewing satisfaction of vital needs. A social institution makes connections between people not random or chaotic, but constant, reliable, and sustainable. Institutional interaction is a well-established order social life in the main spheres of human life. The more social needs are satisfied by social institutions, the more developed the society is.
As new needs and conditions arise in the course of the historical process, new types of activities and corresponding connections appear. Society is interested in giving them order and a normative character, that is, in their institutionalization.
In Russia, as a result of reforms at the end of the twentieth century. For example, such a type of activity as entrepreneurship appeared. The streamlining of these activities led to the emergence various types firms, required the publication of laws regulating business activities, and contributed to the formation of corresponding traditions.
In the political life of our country, the institutions of parliamentarism, a multi-party system, and the institution of the presidency arose. The principles and rules of their functioning are enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation and relevant laws.
In the same way, the institutionalization of other types of activities that have arisen in recent decades has occurred.
It happens that the development of society requires the modernization of the activities of social institutions that historically developed in previous periods. Thus, in the changed conditions, the need arose to solve the problems of introducing the younger generation to the culture in a new way. Hence the steps taken to modernize the institution of education, as a result of which the institutionalization of the Unified State Exam and new content of educational programs may occur.
So we can go back to the definition given at the beginning of this part of the paragraph. Think about what characterizes social institutions as highly organized systems. Why is their structure stable? What is the significance of deep integration of their elements? What is the diversity, flexibility, and dynamism of their functions?
PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS
1 Society is a highly complex system, and in order to live in harmony with it, it is necessary to adapt (adapt) to it. Otherwise, you cannot avoid conflicts and failures in your life and activities. Condition for adaptation to modern society is the knowledge about it that a social studies course provides.
2 It is possible to understand society only if its quality is identified as an integral system. To do this, it is necessary to consider various sections of the structure of society (the main spheres of human activity; a set of social institutions, social groups), systematizing, integrating connections between them, features of the management process in a self-governing social system.
3 V real life you will have to interact with various social institutions. To make this interaction successful, you need to know the goals and nature of the activity that has taken shape in the social institution you are interested in. Studying the legal norms governing this type of activity will help you with this.
4 in subsequent sections of the course, characterizing individual spheres of human activity, it is useful to revisit the content of this paragraph in order, based on it, to consider each sphere as part of an integral system. This will help to understand the role and place of each sphere, each social institution in the development of society.
Document
From the work of the modern American sociologist E. Shils “Society and societies: a macrosociological approach.”
What is included in societies? As has already been said, the most differentiated of them consist not only of families and kinship groups, but also of associations, unions, firms and farms, schools and universities, armies, churches and sects, parties and numerous other corporate bodies or organizations which, in in turn, have boundaries defining the circle of members over which the appropriate corporate authorities - parents, managers, chairmen, etc., etc. - exercise a certain measure of control. This also includes systems formally and informally organized on a territorial basis - communities, villages, districts, cities, districts - and they all also have some features of society. Further, it includes unorganized collections of people within society - social classes or strata, occupations and professions, religions, linguistic groups - who have a culture inherent more to those who have a certain status or occupy a certain position than to everyone else.
So, we are convinced that society is not just a collection of united people, primordial and cultural groups interacting and exchanging services with each other. All these groups form a society by virtue of their existence under a common authority, which exercises its control over the territory delineated by borders, maintains and inculcates a more or less common culture. It is these factors that transform a collection of relatively specialized initial corporate and cultural groups into a society.
Questions and tasks for the document
1. What components, according to E. Shils, are included in society? Indicate which areas of society each of them belongs to.
2. Select from the listed components those that are social institutions.
3. Based on the text, prove that the author views society as social system.
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. What does the concept of “system” mean?
2. How do social (public) systems differ from natural ones?
3. What is the main quality of society as an integral system?
4. What are the connections and relationships of society as a system with the environment?
5. What is a social institution?
6. Characterize the main social institutions.
7. What are the main features of a social institution?
8. What is the significance of institutionalization?
TASKS
1. When changing systematic approach, analyze Russian society at the beginning of the twentieth century.
2. Describe all the main features of a social institution using the example of an educational institution. Use the material and recommendations for the practical conclusions of this paragraph.
3. B teamwork Russian sociologists say: “...society exists and functions in diverse forms... The really important question comes down to ensuring that society itself is not lost behind the special forms, the forests behind the trees.” How does this statement relate to the understanding of society as a system? Give reasons for your answer.
