Now you can superimpose the table of school Polish onto school Russian. First, only headings, prepositions, endings:
case/// Questions/// Prepositions/// Units: 1skl//2skl//3skl/// Plural
przypadek///Pytania///Przyimki/// liczba pojedyncza:m“0”//m/f-a,i//f“0”//wed///lic zba mnoga nie m-o( not ml)//męskoosobowy
I(Nominative///Who? What?///“0”///“0”,-o,-e// -a,-i// “0”,-my///-s,-i,-a,-i, -e//not highlighted
Mianownik///Who? Co?///“0”/// m/r“0”//m:-a(-ta);f:-a,i//f“0”//cf-o,e,-u m; ę, mię
///not m-l m+f:-y,-i,-e/ cf:-a
((m/r (not m-l all) + f/r to -a, -i:
y: to firm acc;/ i: only -gi,-ki;/ e: to -ż,rz,-sz,cz,-c,-dz +to soft(-l,-j,-ni,-ń, ś,ć,ź);
/f in sogl (all): e,-y,-i independent from the base
/cf(-o,-e,-um):- a;/ cf(ę,mię): - ęta,-miona))
//m-l:-y,-i,-e
((y: without alternation according to ec/cy, ca/cy; 3rd turn: -r/rzy, k/cy, g(a)/dzy
i: 8 soften: -p/pi, b/bi, n/ni, m/mi, w/wi, s/si,z/zi, f/fi; 4black:t/ci; sta/ści; d/dzi; ch/si
e: rz/rze; sz/sze; cz/cze; ść/ście; l/le; ranks, relationships:- wie))
P(Genitive)/// Whom? What? (no)/// near, near, without, for, from to y, with, from, because of -a, -i(u/yu)//-s, -i//-i// /“0”, -ov, -ev, -(i)y, -ey// -
Dopełniacz/// Kogo? Czego?(nie ma)/// koło (obok), bez, dla, od, do, u, z/ze; z powodu = because of, naprzeciwko = on the contrary, wśród = among, oprócz = except, podczas (w czasie) = during; według = according to: …mnie/niego= in my/his (opinion); …wskazówek – instructions/// -a/-u // -y/i // -i/y//-a
M/r “0” live:-a
M/r“0”not alive: -a/-u
a: months of February; tools; body parts; Polish cities; all in ak, nik; decrease: ek, ik/yk u: uncountable, collected, abstract, foreign, days of the week; NOT reduce: ek; izm/yzm
//m/r on “a”+ w on “a,i”: i:after k,g; soft (-cja,sja,zja=-ji; -ja=-i); y: after the others
//zh“0”- ży,rzy; szy,czy; after other letters: -i/y //Ср/р all: -a
///“0”;-ów -i/y
m/r all: solid -ów; ż,rz,sz,cz;dz,c: -y; soft -i(+options:-ów/-y)
w/r on “a”+sr/r: “0”: after hard ones + sometimes after soft/sizzling ones; -y: after ż,rz,sz,cz; i: after soft// f/r“0”only -i/y //m-l is not highlighted
D(Dative)///To whom, to what?/// to, by///-y,-yu//-e, -and//-and///-am,-yam// -
Celownik /// Komu? Czemu? /// ku, dzięki, przeciwko, wbrew (to, thanks to, against, in spite of) /// -owi,u//-(i)e,y,i// y,i//-u
//m/acc: owi,u (no rule)//m/r on “a” + all w/r:(i)e,y,i=P// s/r all: -u/// -om// -
B(Accusative)/// Whom? what?
///non-soul=I/soul=P// -
Biernik /// Kogo? Co?(mieć)/// za, przez, (na, nad, w), o/// m“0” nieżywotny=I/ m“0” żywotny(=P)=-a//
m/r on “-a” + f/r on “-a,i”=-ę// f/r“0”+ sr/r all =I/// =I:all not m-l m/ r living and not living + all f/r and cf//m-l=P
T(Creative/// By whom? What?/// behind, above, under, with, before (between) /// -oh, eat //-oh, her (oh, her) //yu, (eat) ///-ami,-yami // -
Narzędnik/// Kim? Czym?/// za, nad, pod, z, przed, między/// (i)em//-ą//-ą//(i)em/// ami(mi- soft)// -
P(Prepositional)/// About whom/ what?/// about, (in, on), with/// -e, -i(u/yu)//-e, -i//-i/// -ah ,-I// -
Miejscownik /// O kim? O czym? (Gdzie -where?) /// O; w, na, przy, po(walks where? po dashu =on the roof), po(when? po pracy =after work)/// ie, e, u//ie, e, y, i
//-ie m+sr+f hard: 8 soft and 3 black as in (I)m-l: t(a)=cie; st(а)=ście; (z)d=(ź)dzie;
-e m+sr+f: turn (s)ł=(ś)le; r=rze
-u (m/r "0" + sr without black) on ch,k,g,c,soft,thorn
//-e (f/r and m/r with “-a”) + 3cher: cha=sze, ka=ce; ga=dze
y/i(=P) w+m to “-a”:-y (on -c,-dz,-cz,-sz, rz,ż)/ i: (on l, j, i,ś,ń,ć,ź)
//"0": y/i(=P)
///-ach// -
Z(vocal)/// -/// -/// “0”/// Pl.=I// -
Wołacz/// -/// -/// -(i)e,-u//-o,-u,-i//-i,-y//=And
m “0” = P (excl. -(n)iec/-(ń)cze), decrease: -u// (f+m) by “-a” - hard, -ja:-o; decrease: -u; on i=i// Ж“0”:-i,y(=Р)// ср=И
///Pl.=I: Panie! (Ladies!)// Pln=I: Panowie!(G-yes!) Państwo!(Ladies and Gentlemen!)
What good can be gained from this porridge? Firstly, the prepositions are very similar to Russian ones. For example, in the nominative in case they are not found either in the Russian line or in the Polish, which was obvious without any table.
Genitive also begins optimistically: about, near, without, for, from, to y, with, from, because of (who/what) roughly correspond to the Polish koło(obok), bez, dla, od, do, u, z/ze ; z powodu (kogo/czego), especially considering that in Polish it reads dla=[for]. Remembering the Little Russian accent in the textbook “I’m walking around the Christmas tree” (“Conduit and shwambraniya”), it’s easy to guess that koło(obok) = near, and having stumbled upon z/ze or z powodu a couple of times, you’ll realize that our prepositions are not in Polish “from, with(co), because of”, and there is “z/ze”. Z powodu awarii, ze szkoły, podczas burzy, oprócz cebuli (due to an accident, from school, during a storm/thunderstorm, except onions) and also naprzeciwko = opposite, wśród = among, podczas=w czasie=“during” good are guessed if you think about a village on the Russian-Ukrainian border.
The discrepancy between Polish and Russian prepositions is mainly stylistic and begins where schoolchildren get confused in cases. In Russian you should say “I’m going to school/to the cinema (V)” or “from school, from the cinema (R)”. And a deuce threatens a child who writes “from school, from the cinema” or, even more so, “to school” - if he is going to not only get to it, but also go inside and spend the whole day there. IN in this case that a Russian gets a two and a Pole gets a five. Polish schoolboy idzie do szkoły(Р)/ wraca ze szkoły(Р), chodzi do kina(Р), (idzie na film(В), idzie do domu/do parku(Р), which translates - goes to school(В) / returns from school (P), goes to the cinema (goes to the film (B), goes home / to the park (B). And the fact that Polish “cinema” receives the usual case endings, like other foreign words - least problem. The list of places to which a Polish schoolchild goes/walks/drives is very long, but sometimes a Pole, for a change, goes “on/to” and even “above” something: na stadion(В) = to the stadium, nad morze(В) =on the sea (also on=nad any shore of a body of water) w Tatry(В)=in the Tatras (as in=w any other mountains), and this is the accusative case. And when he goes back from the mountains or from an event - genitive. Here the pair (B)/(P) completely coincides with the Russians: w Tatry// z Tatr, na stadion/ film/ concert/ obiad(B)// ze stadionu, z filmu/concertu/obiadu (P) (in the Tatras/ from the Tatras, to the stadium/ film/ concert/ lunch// from the stadium, from the film/ concert/ lunch), as well as the unusual to the Russian ear “nad morze(В)// znad morza(Р) = to the sea//from the sea” . Another funny example from Polish stylistics is our “according to what?” - according to instructions." We taught and taught that this is the dative case (according to the protocol, decision, etc.), but it turned out that in Polish all these expressions are genitive, although in Russian it is translated as dative: według= according to: ...mnie/niego(Р) = my/his (opinion(D); ...wskazówek(R) = instructions(D)
Dative, except for “according to what/what” does not bring any special surprises. Dzięki/wbrew (thanks to/in spite of) so it will be dzięki (niemu)twojemu przyjacielowi/ wbrew wszystkim= thanks to (him) your friend/ in spite of (or in spite of) everyone. Przeciwko(przeciw) komuś/czemuś(D) does not coincide with the Russian “against whom/what(R)”. Here, in contrast to “according to which,” everything is the other way around: in Russian it is genitive, in Polish it is dative. By the way, if anyone hasn’t guessed yet, in Polish dictionaries they write not komu/czemu (to whom/what) but komuś/czemuś (to someone/something), and not “kto/co”, but “ktoś/coś” etc. in all cases, since the particle “ś” corresponds to our “-or/-that”, although it is written without a hyphen. “Ku” is rare, and is usually translated: ku morzu/ zadowoleniu = to the sea/ pleasure (for example, mutual). From the Polish point of view, the Russian “walk on the roof, in the park” is not a dative case, but a prepositional case. This difference is easier to notice in the words m/r with a consonant: a Russian is walking “in the park, on the roof (D)” // is “in the park, on the roof (P)” and the Pole is only na/po dachu//w parku (P ) - on/on the roof//in the park, and cannot trample on the park as on the surface, especially in the dative case, although we can probably say that he turned “towards the park” = ku parkowi (D).
In the accusative case“on, in, above” in the combinations na stadion, nad morze, w Tatry and na film/koncert - this has already been passed. Poles also go “to the spatzer” (na spacer(B). Spatzer = walking. The unusual thing about the spatzer is that it somehow managed not to get into the Russian language. There is “Motsion”, there is a “promenade”, but there is no spatzer. Well, okay, he didn’t get in - that means he’s not needed. The Pole walks through the park or across the street (for example, along the passage) in a completely Russian way - idzie przez park/ ulicę (B), though, he doesn’t walk very well in Russian. with the preposition “in front” from the house to the platform (B) in front front door: idzie przed dom(B). We, of course, do not say: “I will go out (to) the front of the house” - but the cases here coincide. There is also a preposition “for” in the usual version for us: “przepraszać za spóźnienie = to apologize for being late (B).” Also sounds good in Polish za in the meaning “za darmo / za opłatą (T)” = “for free / for a fee (for money (B)". It’s even a shame that in Polish it’s not accusative, but instrumental case, and in essence it should be “(with what?) for free / with payment.” By the way, “how? - free of charge, for nothing, for nothing” is an adverb in both languages, and it does not have any case endings. In addition, “za darmo” = “free” implies free tickets, bonuses, etc., and not the archaic slang “for free” and is always written separately. This booklet is za darmo, and that map is za opłatą(T), for a fee. But more often the choice (B)/(T) does not cause problems: położyć coś pod/na stół/ jest pod stołem= put something under/on the table (B)/ is under the table (T).
There is no “about” in the Polish language at all (about this, about that, etc.). Therefore, the options “about the road (P) / about the road (V)” are absent in Polish - there is only “o”, and with accusative case, and not with a prepositional one, as we would like. It turns out that asking (someone) about something / about the road / about time” (P) is translated only in the accusative case = pytać (się) (kogoś) o coś/ o drogę o godzinę (В) – something in between between our “ask (about what) about the road/about time (B)” or “ask (what?) the road/time (B)”. It’s even more difficult to come to terms with the fact that “asking for an address” (B) = prosić o adres (B). By the way, the Polish preposition “o” in its rightful place in the prepositional case is translated without problems: to talk and think about someone (P) = mówić i marzyć o kimś (P). But the strangest combination for Russian ears is worse than “driving over the sea / over the river (B), or returning “from above” the river (R), and even asking for “the address” / going “in front of the house” ( B)” is the Polish “czekać na (kogoś/co)” = wait for (someone/what) (B). Only close genetic ties with Ukraine will tell you that czekać na ojca/autobus(B) = wait for father/bus(B). But not everyone knows Ukrainian verbs.
Instrumental case, like the prepositional one, adds almost no unusual combinations or new prepositions. “For free/for a fee” za darmo/ za opłatą(T)” has already happened. There is no need to translate “pod stołem /nad stołem=under/above the table (T)”. The Polish “nad”, passing into the instrumental case, becomes almost recognizable even in expressions like being (where?) “on the sea (on the lake (P) = (where - “above what”?) nad morzem (nad jeziorem) (T) “- in contrast to “to go (to) nad morze (jezioro)(В)/ to return (from where) znad morza (jeziora)(Р)”. Also turns idzie przed dom(В) into the usual stoi przed domem (przed kinem) (T) = stands in front of the house (or in front of the “cinema”, excuse me, cinema). “Together (with whom) with my brother” also sounds “in Russian”, that is, the use of the prepositions between and for is absolutely clear. when trying to translate “między stołem a szafą wisi lampa (śpi kot)/ za domem jest ogród” Although there are plenty of surprises in this example that are not related to prepositions and cases: firstly, the Poles use either “a” or “i”. “(and in this case no comma separates the “a”!), where in Russian there is always only “and”; secondly, “szafa” is our closet, which turned out to be in the Polish language. feminine; thirdly, “ogród” is a garden, not a vegetable garden. So the correct translation is: “there is a lamp hanging between the table and the closet (the cat is sleeping) / there is a garden behind the house.” It can be considered that the Polish “for” fails the Russians (if you don’t take into account za opłatą(T) = for a fee (B) in just one case: “tęsknić za kimś/czymś(T) = miss someone/something (P)" , although here the classic rustic “I miss my family, girlfriends (T), and our home (T)” comes to the rescue - that is, I miss home.
Prepositional, when it comes to questions o kim? o(w;na;po) czym? gdzie? extremely similar to Russian, as can already be seen: marzyć o kimś - think/dream about someone (P); na/po dachu//w parku= (be) on/ (walk) on the roof//in the park (P). The complexity of the Polish “where” is most likely due to the unusual declension of geographical names. The coolest exception is three European countries: Hungary, Germany, Italy. In Polish these are Węgry, Niemcy, Włochy, and their population is Węgrzy, Niemcy, Włosi (mln genus), and the inhabitants are spoken of as Węgrach, Niemcach, Włochach. Since the “correct” endings are already occupied by nationalities, the Pole writes about countries “Węgry/na Węgrzech - Hungary/in Hungary” (and not “na Węgrach”, this would turn out to be chauvinism!). Germans and Italians behave similarly: w Niemczech=in Germany, we Włoszech=in Italy. These are exceptions that are in any Polish textbook, but the use of “na” and “v” does not hurt the Russian ear. Similarly with the city of Zakopane/in Zakopane - Zakopane/w Zakopanem (and not “w Zakopanym” and not “w Zakopanych”!). Inconsistencies about where to write “in” and where “on” generally occur less often than you might expect. This, for example, is our “at the university” = na uniwersytecie in Polish. Village/(na)in the village = wieś/na wsi is distinguished by the use of “na wsi” to mean “summer in the village,” meaning the countryside, rather than as a preposition. But there are two prepositions that are often used “not at all in Russian”, these are przy, po. After all, a Russian dines at the table (T), but a Pole eats “at the table” = przy stole (P), even if they are sitting next to each other. And of course “after”, if it is not “walking on the roof, on the site”, namely “after finishing something there”: (when?) po pracy (P) = after work (P). There will also be an after dinner/concert, etc.
But V vocative case prepositions are not used, since the “o” in the exclamation “Oh Mouse!” This is not a preposition at all, but an interjection like “Ah! Oy!”, and the correct address to this beast would rather be “o Myszy!”
Of course, it is impossible to list ALL the cases where Polish prepositions coincide/do not coincide with ours. But two and a half pages of instructive examples from Polish textbooks provide an excellent opportunity to completely get confused in Polish endings, which at first seemed simple and familiar. Which allows us to finally fill in the table of Polish cases with words. By the way, when checking it in a textbook, especially one translated from English, pay attention to the sequence of cases - it does not always coincide with “our Russian”.
Perhaps the most noticeable and difficult difference between Polish and Russian declensions is soft and hard endings. Since the letters “я”, “у” and “ь” are absent in Polish, then ń,ś,ć,ź /ni,si,ci,zi are the same “soft” letters that are written differently in depending on the position at the end of the word/before the vowel; “softening of consonants” - p/pi, b/bi, n/ni, m/mi, w/wi, s/si, z/zi, f/fi functions as a “soft sign” in endings –i=[and] or –ie=[e]; in addition, rz, dz and z may behave differently in standard alternations; and of course we must take into account the favorite Polish “zhy, shi with “y”. All this is remembered easily, approximately like a telephone directory or like case endings in Russian. Therefore, you have to memorize individual words and it is better if with prepositions/verbs, or in short phrases. In order not to immediately add adjectives to nouns, we will use the magic pronoun “this / this / this / these”, which well warns that the Polish stove masculine, wardrobe - female, etc. This = ten, and “that” = tamten (ta = tamta, etc.). They behave the same in all variants, including “ci” and “tamci”, so for gender/number it is enough that this/this/this=ten/ta/to; these(men)/(not men)=ci/te
Functional parts of speech include prepositions ( przyimki ), unions ( sp ó jniki ), particles ( partyku ł y ).
Prepositions(Przyimki )
Depending on the origin and morphological composition, prepositions of the Polish language can be divided into three types: a) simple, primary prepositions like bez , w , na , nad , pod , po , dla , do , przed , za etc. b) complex prepositions like zza 'because of', spod 'from under', etc., c) secondary prepositions like dooko ł a 'around', dzi ę ki 'thanks to', obok 'next to', wzgl ę dem 'from the point of view', zamiast 'instead of', etc. Prepositional-case combinations like w ci ą gu 'for', na czele 'led by', razem 'together with', etc.
Primary prepositions, which are common Slavic in origin, most often coincide with Russian ones in meaning and functioning ( z przyjemno ś ci ą 'with pleasure', przed obiadem 'before lunch', ksi ąż ka dla doros ł ych 'book for adults', etc.). Prepositions differ in Polish and Russian in their compatibility with case forms. Some can be combined with only one case, others - with two, three cases ( bez + D . 'without', od + D . 'from', etc., za + D . , za + B . , za + N 'for'). There may be cases of discrepancy in the use of one or another preposition in the Polish and Russian languages. Thus, there is a discrepancy in the use of the preposition do observed in a significant group of verbs and adjectives ( d ąż y ć do czego , do kogo 'to strive for something, for someone. ’, podobny do kogo , czego 'resembling someone, something', zwr ó ci ć si ę do kogo 'to contact someone', zabiera ć si ę do czego 'get down to something. ’, iść do brata 'go to brother' zajrzeć do pokoju 'look into the room', jechać do Warszawy 'go to Warsaw', etc. Among adverbial combinations, the combinations are widely used do + D in the meaning of the purpose of the action (przygotowywa ć si ę do egzamin ó w 'prepare for exams', szczoteczka do z ę b ó w 'toothbrush', ochota do pracy 'willingness to work') . Design dla + D . may also have the meaning of a goal, an achieved result ( dla przyjemno ś ci 'for, for pleasure', dla och ł ody 'to refresh yourself'), designation of feelings and sensations ( wdzi ę czno ść dla pisarza 'gratitude to the writer').Combinations za + D . pass different object values ( korzysta ć z czego 'to use smb. ’),spatial values( wsta ć z łóż ku 'get out of bed', wyj ść z domu 'leave the house'). The Polish prepositional-case combination differs significantly in its lexical content za + D . and Russian s + R.p. with the meaning of the reason (ze strachu 'out of fear, out of fear', etc. ). Characteristic designs are also evaluative predicative constructions Name + link + z + R.p. (K ł amca z ciebie . "You are a liar."
Construction with time value za + D. has no analogue in modern Russian. The meaning of this combination is to determine the time of action by a person or phenomenon associated with a given time ( za Kazimierza Wielkiego 'during the time of Casimir the Great', za ż ycia 'during life', za moich czas ó w 'in my time', etc. Preposition combination o with the form V.p. can have an object value ( prosi ć o kogo , o co 'to ask for someone, for something'), can denote quantitative differences in different types comparisons (with comparative degree adjectives and adverbs) ( o dwa lata m ł odszy 'two years younger', o dwa kroki siedzie ć 'sit two steps away', etc.). The design has a specific meaning za + V.p. with nouns denoting units of time, future tense ( za rock 'in a year', za miesi ą c 'in a month', etc.). The functioning of prepositions can be represented as follows:
|
Przyimki miejsca |
|
|
do (+ D. ) |
do domu |
|
koło (+ D.) |
koło uniwersytetu |
|
na (+B. ) |
on the street |
|
na (+Mc.) |
na uli sa ch |
|
nad (+ N.) |
above the table |
|
od (+ D.) |
od domu |
|
po (+Mc.) |
po pokoj |
|
pod (+ N.) |
pod table |
|
przed (+ N) . |
przed tabli |
|
przez (+B. ) |
Przez park |
|
u (+ D.) |
u ojca |
|
w (+Mc.) |
w sklepie |
|
z (+ D.) |
z kina |
|
z a (+ N. ) |
za dome |
|
|
|
|
Przyjimki czasu |
|
|
do (+ D.) |
do wtorku |
|
koło (+ D.) |
koło czwartej |
|
na (+B.) |
na godzinę |
|
na (+Mc.) |
na jesieni |
|
o (+Mc.) |
o pierwszej |
|
od (+ D.) |
od zeszłego roku |
|
przed (+ N.) |
przed lekcją |
|
przez (+B.) |
przez cały dzień |
|
w (+B.) |
w środę |
|
w (+ Mc.) |
w styczniu |
|
w czasie (+ D.) |
w czasie wykładu |
|
za (+B.) |
za godzinę |
Compared to the Russian language, the Polish language has a wider range of complex prepositions used with genitive case and having meanings of space and time. These prepositions in Polish constitute a more complete system that serves to indicate the location of an object in space and the direction of its movement ( ponad rzek ą 'over the river', ponad g ó rami 'high above the mountains, above the mountains', pose rzek ą 'beyond the river', pose dome 'outside the house', popod lodem 'under the ice', wyszed ł zza rogu 'came around the corner', spod 'from under', i ść znad rzeki 'come from the river', odej ść przed drzwi 'move away from the door', wyj ść spomi ę dzy g ę stych drzew 'come out of the thick trees', spoza 'because of', etc.). Adjective and verb combination of preposition sprzed and R.p. a noun with a temporary meaning denotes a statute of limitations ( moda sprzed dwudziestu lat 'fashion from twenty years ago').
Secondary prepositions are the result of rethinking the forms of other parts of speech, primarily prepositional-case combinations and adverbs ( wzd ł u ż 'along', podczas 'during', blisko 'close to', skutkem 'as a result', wobec 'in relation to what, in relation to what', etc.).
Unions(Spójniki ),
From a functional-semantic point of view, conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating.
Coordinating conjunctions ( sp ó jniki łą czne ) connect both words and sentences that are in a relationship of equality. Depending on the purpose, they can be divided into several groups: connecting(i And', a 'and, a', oraz 'and also, and', etc.), adversative(a 'A', ale 'But', jednak 'however', natomiast 'the same, but', przeciwnie 'on the contrary, on the contrary', etc.), dividing(albo 'or', b ą d ź 'or, either', etc.), explanatory(czyli 'or, that is', etc.), productive(wi ę c 'therefore, therefore', then 'thus, thereby', przeto 'therefore, therefore, so', tote ż ’and therefore ’, etc.) etc.
Subordinating conjunctions ( spójniki podrzędne ) express a subordinating relationship in complex sentence and attach subordinate clauses with various subordinate meanings. These are unions time(gdy 'When', soon 'as soon as, only, if', dop ó ki 'bye, until', etc.), reasons(bo 'because, since', poniewa ż 'since, because', etc.), goals (aby 'so that, if only', by 'to', i ż by 'to', etc.), conditions (gdyby 'if', je ś li 'If', je ś liby 'if only', etc.), additions(ż e 'What', i ż 'what', etc. ), concessions (cho ć 'Although', cho ć by 'at least (and)', Chocia ż 'Although ', Chocia ż by ’at least (and)’, etc.) etc.
Some conjunctions can attach subordinate clauses with different subordinating meanings. Yes, union ż e “what” can appear in an explanatory clause ( Dobrze ,ż e ś przyszed ł. “It’s good that you came.”), subordinate clause of degree ( So mnie boli , ż e spa ć nie mog ę. “It hurts me so much that I can’t sleep.”), in the attributive clause ( Uderzy ł wiatr z so ą si łą,ż e a ż chojary przygi ęł y si ę do ziemi . “The wind hit with such force that even the old spruce trees bent to the ground.”), in the subordinate reason ( Na ł owy zje ż d ż a ł tu , ż e bory blisko . “He came here to hunt, since there is a forest nearby.”), in the subordinate clause ( Przywaliło go drzewo w liesie, że ledwo na pół żywy powrócił do domu. “A tree crushed him in the forest, so he returned home barely alive.”), etc. . The most specialized are unions bo 'because', je ż eli 'If', cho ć 'although', etc. Subordinating conjunctions can be used in a simple sentence, joining words and phrases ( Stary cho ć jeszcze krzepki gospodarz ... “An old, although still strong master...”).
Particles(Partyku ł y )
Particles include function words with different functions, meanings, and varying degrees of semantic and phonetic independence. The following are traditionally classified as particles in the Polish language:
1) morpheme particles that have grammatical meaning and serve to form word forms, this is a) particle by , which is an indicator subjunctive mood, as well as an inseparable component of unions ż eby , aby etc., particle niech - indicator imperative mood, particle ni - component of negative pronouns ( nobody , nigdzie etc.), components of pronouns - ś , - kol wiek ,lada ,b ą d ź (who ś 'someone, somebody', ktokolwiek 'anyone', lada who 'anyone who's just out of place', who b ą d ź 'someone', etc. ) ;
2) enhancing particles type no , ż e /ż, ci , to , przecie ż (We ź cie no si ę do roboty . “Finally start working.” Zrobże ! “Do it!”);
3) negative particle nie(Nic nie rozumiem. “I don’t understand anything.”);
4) interrogative particles like czy 'li', albo 'isn', czy ż by ’isn’, etc. ( Czy on so powiedzia ł? “Is that what he said?” Albo mi to m ó wiono ? « Did they tell me about this?”), etc.
Polish linguistic tradition classifies particles as introductory words With modal meaning type mo ż e 'May be', chyba 'perhaps', oczwi ś cie ’of course’, etc.
Interjections(Wykrzykniki )
Interjections express a person’s emotional and volitional reactions to external urges or impulses, or imitate various characteristic sounds made by people, animals or objects.
Semantically, interjections differ from all significant parts of speech in that they do not have the function of naming; the meaning of interjections can only be understood from the context. At the same time, interjections are not parts of the sentence; they occupy an isolated position in it.
Most verbalized interjections come from onomatopoeias( Palma si ę zachybota ł a . I brzd ę k na ziemi ę! “The palm tree swayed. And hit the ground!” A wtem urwis-bęc ją w łeb kamieniem. “And at this time the mischievous person gets hit in the forehead with a stone”). Some of the interjections were formed from verbal roots ( hop , 'jump', chlup 'squelch', ciach 'bang, bang, thump' (colloquial), trzask 'clap, fuck', etc.). In the Polish linguistic tradition, interjections acting as a predicate are usually called, following Z. Klemensiewicz, “ interjection verbs» ( czasowniki wykrzyknikowe), and S. Jodlowski defines them as “ uninflected personal verbs»( czasowniki niefleksyjne osobowe). The so-called can be distinguished into a separate category. vocatives or vocative interjections, used to attract attention.
The morphological system is characterized by the presence of the category of a male person (personality), the use of alternations in the formation of grammatical forms, and the absence of specific short predicative forms of adjectives and participles. The forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs are non-homonymous. Personal and possessive pronouns They have full and short (enclitic) forms. Numerals have a special type of declension. In the verb, the forms of past, long-past, and pre-future tenses are based on the participle form in - l with personal indicators. There is a verbal noun and a special indefinite-personal form and a generalized-personal form.
Prepositions are one of the most difficult topics in any language. In languages that do without cases, it is prepositions that perform their function, and in English, for example, a preposition can sometimes radically change the meaning of the verb. In languages with many cases, like Polish, the same preposition can be used with different cases and have different meaning. In general, with these excuses the devil will break his leg.
If you want my opinion, then I am sure that coping with pretexts is an extremely difficult task. I am sure that it is much easier to feel them than to build a somewhat digestible system. Thus, to work with prepositions in the best possible way will, however, sometimes it won’t hurt to reinforce what has been started with a focused elaboration of individual prepositions.
Let's start with the preposition " through».
The first thing that comes to mind, as a Polish correspondence to this Russian preposition, is “ przez" But it should be noted that:
We translate “through” as “przez” only if talking about space:
Please note: Pojechaliśmy do Polski przez Ukraine.
We went to Poland through Ukraine.
W tym mieście kawiarni są przez każde pięć metrów!
In this city there is a cafe every five meters!
2. Polish “przez” is also very polysemantic and in addition to “through” it can also have other meanings “due to”, “due to”, “during”, etc.
Please note: Spóźniliśmy przez nasz samochód.
We were late because of our car.
Przez cały rok skrzętnie uczyłem się języka polskiego.
I've been studying hard all year Polish.
If you and I talking about time, then the translation of “through” will depend on when the action occurs.
If the action takes place in the future, then we translate “through” as “ za ».
Na przykład: On wyjechał do Polski i wróci (w przyszłości) za dwa lata.
He went to Poland and will return (in the future) in two years.
2. If the action remains in the past, then we translate “through” as “ po ».
Na przykład: On wyjechał do Polski i wrócił (w przeszłości) po dwu latach.
He went to Poland and returned (in the past) two years later.
In order to better remember, we systematize the above in the form of a tablet.
