As a result of studying this chapter, the student should:

know

• theoretical and practical approaches to determining the sources and mechanisms for ensuring an organization’s competitive advantage;
• fundamentals of personnel management methodology;

be able to

Take part in the development of corporate, competitive and functional strategies for the development of the organization in terms of personnel management;

own

Methods for developing and implementing personnel management strategies.

Categorical ideas about labor and their modern interpretation

All existing ideas about work can be divided into everyday and scientific. In the everyday view, human labor is the simplest phenomenon in his life. Therefore, at a superficial glance, it seems that the labor process lends itself easily to research and study. Work for a person can be both a severe punishment and a joy. What it will be - hard labor or happiness - depends on the organizer of work activity.

In economic theory, labor is one of the basic categories. The founders of classical political economy (W. Petty, A. Smith, D. Ricardo) considered the concept of “labor” as a special specific product. A. Smith, for example, believed that labor is any human production activity.

Until the beginning of the 21st century. labor was mainly viewed in categories oriented towards the views of 19th-century political economists. Traditionally, it has been defined as expedient human activity aimed at preserving, modifying, adapting the environment to meet one’s needs, and producing goods and services.

In subsequent periods, approaches to work focused not on the process of human interaction with nature, but on certain relationships between its participants. It was emphasized that labor has a dual nature, because it is both a means of “metabolism” between man and nature, and a means of communication between people in the production process.

This definition is typical for political economics, where preference was given to the problems of physical labor. It was believed that “...the labor process includes three moments:

• 1) purposeful human activity, or labor itself;
• 2) subject of labor;
• 3) the instruments of production with which a person acts on this object." From all these definitions it follows that the subject of labor is Human.

Proponents of neoclassical economic theory interpret the concept of “labor” as a factor of production along with “land” and “capital”, which flows into the production process through the efforts of individuals and is not a unique source of value creation.

A number of authors define labor as “expedient activity to create material and spiritual goods necessary to meet the needs of each individual and society as a whole,” i.e. its expediency and focus on the final result are emphasized, distinguishing meaningful human work from the activities of animals, reminiscent of labor, but of an instinctive nature (a squirrel collects nuts, a bear collects honey, bees make honeycombs)."

Abstract work in the material and material plane there is nothing more than the energy expended by a person (mental, physical) in the social plane - this is the relationship between people regarding the energy expended on the production of goods in the conditions of commodity production. In the process of production and manufacturing of goods, it is not labor power, the carrier of which is a person, that is consumed, but human energy (brain, muscles, etc.).

Good- this is everything that contains a certain positive meaning: an object, phenomenon, product of labor that satisfies one or another human need and meets the interests, goals, aspirations of people. Sometimes goods are considered as embodied utility, which can be understood not only as products of labor, but also as the fruits of nature.

Service is a purposeful human activity, the result of which has a beneficial effect that satisfies some human needs. Their satisfaction is perceived by people as consumption (purchase) of a good. The activity of a broker or stock speculator is, of course, labor, although they do not create wealth, but only redistribute them among people, thereby providing them with certain services. The principle of creating goods should also apply to those types of activities that are associated with ensuring and servicing the processes of changing ownership of certain goods.

Labor simultaneously acts as a process of interaction between man and nature, as a result of which various benefits are created and a person adapts to the external environment, and as certain relationships between its participants, as a result of which an impact is exerted on both the external environment and human nature itself.

At the same time, almost all modern researchers recognize that labor as a factor of production is unique, requiring a special approach to its study. However, analysis of the specifics of labor as a factor of production requires, first of all, consideration of the characteristics of labor in the entire diverse spectrum of human activity.

In a market economy, labor includes not only hired labor, but also labor activity within the household. In modern labor economics, home production is understood as non-market labor activity that does not bring cash income to the household: growing and preparing food, cooking, doing home repairs, car or household appliance repairs, cleaning an apartment, caring for children, etc.

• 1) ontological category, based on the fact that labor is the realized nature of man as an individual and a representative of a species, in some cases even of the biological kingdom. Every person has achieved something in their life, created something (or maybe destroyed it). Modern science attempts to measure these achievements;
• 2) epistemological category, revealing the relationship of labor self-knowledge to the work that needs to be carried out (the work itself is considered in the categories of the meaning of human life). In this context, it is necessary to talk about what distinguishes one subject from another. There are two classes of individual properties:
  • – primary individual properties are associated with gender, age and individual-typical (constitutional features, neurodynamic properties of the brain, features of functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres);
  • – secondary individual properties – dynamics of psychophysical functions and the sphere of organic needs. Thus, in the 21st century. human individuality came to the science of labor;
• 3) social category. Of all the sciences that have “dissolved” ideas about labor in their subject matter, sociology has to the greatest extent developed a conceptual apparatus that allows a correct approach to the study of this most complex phenomenon;
• 4) cultural category, including the study of the highest achievements of national cultures and the entire world culture. Culturological consideration of labor is associated with such concepts as “culture and labor”, “labor and its influence on cultural needs”, “being and consciousness”;
• 5) ethical category, expressed through the relationship “moral assessment and self-esteem of an individual’s own work activity”, “moral choice and self-design of labor technologies”, “the problem of commensurability of values ​​and duty in labor processes”;
• 6) aesthetic category, coming from relationships: “the design of being is the chaos of needs”, “beautiful and ugly”, “sublime and base”, “heroic and treacherous”;
• 7) household category, expressed through the concepts of “workplace”, “organization of living space”, “distribution of labor roles”, “urban and rural labor”;
• 8) gerontological category, expressed through a range of concepts related to the work of older people and caring for older people;
• 9) crisisological category. In this case, hostility and destructiveness of the environment are studied. The destructive side of life is studied by various sciences, in particular crisisology. Work can ennoble, but it is often also a punishment. This is especially evident in the present period, when a whole range of new requirements for employees began to arise on the part of employers;
• 10) valeological category. In this case, the importance of a person’s mental and physical health as the basis of life and the foundation of labor processes is emphasized;
• 11) engineering category. Recently, science related to the design of labor processes has developed;
• 12) innovative category. By working, a person not only changes the world around him, but also changes himself. The balance of these changes is a very fragile and extremely complex thing;
• 13) ecological category. Labor was, is and will always be an environmentally significant phenomenon. It is through labor that man is currently preparing a global environmental catastrophe. And this makes labor another new category, which is the child of increased opportunities;
• 14) risk category. Although risk arises from any type of activity, it is only now that awareness of the need for a more detailed study and creation of risk protection systems for labor itself and at the same time from labor is emerging;
• 15) synergetic category. The synergetics of labor is only being realized by modern science, although labor is synergetic at its core. The synergy of labor strictly correlates with its systematic nature;
• 16) ergonomic category. The term “ergonomics” was first proposed in 1921 by V. N. Myasishchev and V. M. Bekhterev. In 1949, a group of English scientists led by K. Marell organized the Ergonomic Society, after which the term began to become widespread;
• 17) military category, presented through the concepts: “hard worker-warrior”, “military skill”, “home front workers”, etc.;
• 18) management category. In the literature of the late 20th century. Usually there are a number of stages.

First stage associated, as a rule, with the works of F.U. Taylor - the founder of "scientific management". He was the first to pose the problem of managing people (workers) as a specific scientific discipline that has its own categorical apparatus.

The main objective of the Taylor system is “to ensure maximum profit for the entrepreneur combined with maximum welfare for each worker.”

Second phase associated with the concept of “human relations”, which considers the factors of job satisfaction, leadership, cohesion (E. Mayo, F. Roethlisberg, A. Maslow, etc.). Subsequently, all this was developed in the concepts of “labor enrichment”, “humanistic challenge”, where the psychological and economic factors of labor came first, in the doctrine of “quality of working life”, in the concepts of “humanization of labor” as an attempt to synthesize Taylorism and “human relationships." Theories of work motivation also occupy a special place (A. Maslow, F. Herzberg, D. McGregor), etc.

In the 1970s in the USA, attention is focused on ideas about “quality of life” (the term was introduced back in the 1950s by D. Riesman and J. Galbraith), “labor enrichment” (the term was introduced in the 1960s by L. David), which are related with theories of post-industrial society.

Third stage. In the West, especially in the USA, since the 1990s. A new direction, called “learning organizational systems,” is intensively developing. The fundamental ideas of this direction are drawn from cybernetics. The approach that considers the organization as a learning system that responds synergistically to various changes was partially proclaimed in the book by P. Senge “The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Self-Learning Organization.”

The basis of the approach being developed at this stage is the transition from the traditional understanding of labor to intellectual work.

From an economic point of view work is a process of conscious, purposeful, creative, legitimate activity of people to produce material and spiritual goods intended to satisfy both personal and social needs. Its functions are presented in Fig. 1.1 and 1.2.

In the extensive literature devoted to various aspects of labor, the question of the totality of labor functions has not yet received comprehensive coverage. Political economists are considering

Rice. 1.1.

Rice. 1.2.

mainly the first and second functions (labor as a way to satisfy needs and the creator of material wealth). Philosophers and sociologists, depending on the problems of their research, choose one of the other three functions (labor as a means of shaping a person, or as a force that improves society, or as the basis for the progress of freedom), while the concept of “labor function”, as a rule, is not used. As examples of a few exceptions, we can point out the work of R. Gellner, which examines two functions of labor - labor as a means of livelihood and labor as a creator and transformer of man

Introduction

Labor is the purposeful activity of people aimed at creating material and cultural values. Labor is the basis and an indispensable condition for human life. By influencing the natural environment, changing and adapting it to their needs, people not only ensure their existence, but also create conditions for the development and progress of society.

The labor process is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The main forms of its manifestation are the expenditure of human energy, the interaction of a worker with the means of production (objects and means of labor) and the production interaction of workers with each other, both horizontally (the relationship of participation in a single labor process) and vertically (the relationship between managers and subordinates ). The role of labor in the development of man and society lies in the fact that in the process of labor not only material and spiritual values ​​are created that are intended to meet people’s needs, but also the workers themselves develop, acquire skills, reveal their abilities, replenish and enrich knowledge. The creative nature of work finds its expression in the emergence of new ideas.

The subject of the study is labor as the basis of life and personal development.

The purpose of the work is to study the sociological aspects of work, reflecting the relationship between the system of organizing work activity and the personal development of a person.

Based on the purpose of the work, the objectives of the study are to analyze and evaluate, firstly, the state of traditional and modern concepts of the sociology of labor; secondly, the subject, directions and trends in the development of this sociological theory, which must be considered in close connection with the needs of actually functioning production and labor; thirdly, the relationship between the interpretation of the concepts of life activity and personal development, which form the basis of work.

1. History of the sociology of labor as a prerequisite for the formation of the basis of life activity and personal development

An analysis of the works of foreign and domestic scientists shows that there are very diverse and ambiguous approaches to the interpretation of the subject of the sociology of labor, to its structure, logic of presentation, explanation of the genesis of ideas and ways of their interaction with real life. Analysis of scientific research and educational literature allows us to identify several approaches.

First, there are concepts that view the social reserves of labor as relating only (or mainly) to industrial production.

Secondly, there are works by researchers who have adopted the economic concept of interpreting the essence of labor. At their core, these studies are traditional economic theories with the addition of some questions on the social aspects of labor. In them, man is considered only as a technological element of production, along with means, objects and instruments of labor. “Within the framework of this approach, both theory and practice are interested in a production worker as a bearer of a profession of one or another level of qualification, one or another production skills, abilities. And what a person thinks about his work, about his production, about his managers, what motives he realizes, what he accepts or rejects in the process of work - many supporters of the economic approach did not care at all. Thirdly, in a number of studies, textbooks and teaching aids, the sociology of labor includes problems related to economic sociology of the labor market, migration, employment, unemployment, etc., which cannot be solved within the framework of one organization, one enterprise. This requires the efforts and activities of government and public organizations throughout the country or at least the region. Fourthly, in the literature there are characteristics of the sociology of labor in a philosophical understanding, when it is interpreted as a special sociological science, the subject of study of which is labor as a social phenomenon with all its characteristic features, as well as those social relations into which participants in the labor process enter.

Fifthly, realizing the limitations of this approach, another group of researchers seeks to interpret the subject of the sociology of labor as socially typical processes that find their expression in attitudes towards work, labor behavior, depending on the content, nature and conditions of its work.

Thus, at present there are different interpretations of the essence, content and structure of the sociology of labor.

Where is the starting point that should form the basis for the analysis of social problems of labor? As for all sociology, such a starting point is, in a broad sense, the sociology of life, and in a narrow sense, the sociology of production and labor, their social facets that form and create the image and style of working life. In this case, the central link in the sociology of labor “becomes a person, the total social reserves that are hidden in his consciousness and behavior, in his social essence as a production worker.

As an independent branch of sociological science, labor sociology arose at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Its emergence and formation were preceded by processes characterizing the development of scientific thought and real production practice.

As for the scientific analysis of the role of man in production, the first substantiated understanding of the place of the worker in the economic life of society was carried out by A. Smith (1723-1790), who formulated one of the most important requirements for the organization of work - “not to interfere” with the performance of labor duties, for man is guided by two natural motives—selfish interest and the inclination to exchange.

In the 19th century, the founder of “moral arithmetic” J. Bentham (1748-1832) formulated the principle of benefit, which means for the worker to achieve the greatest pleasure and strive to avoid suffering in every possible way. These ideas were developed in the works of J.S. Mill (1806-1873). In his work “On Freedom,” a certain ideal of “economic man” was developed and substantiated, to which the average person existing in that period of time should grow. In his works and the works of other representatives of “moral philosophy,” the phenomenon of good was interpreted in every possible way, which, according to their ideas, should be used for the rational organization of production.

In the second half of the 19th century, the theory of marginalism became widespread, adopting the principle of utility, which guides people in order to realize their consumer demand.

For K. Marx (1818-1883), a person is also not a subject of economic life: he is impersonal and only personifies production relations that function objectively, regardless of the will and intentions of people. Thus, the scientific search for an explanation of the role and place of man in the production process during the entire period of formation and strengthening of capitalist social relations never went beyond the consideration of the production worker as an object of influence, although in their course some guesses were already formulated about the active role of man, about the importance of moral and spiritual principles of activity. Real practice developed in a similar way, when the employee was assigned the role of a performer, preferably an unquestioning one, behind whom one must have an eye and an eye. In addition, during this period the capitalist (employer) was guided more by concerns about his own interests (profits), almost completely ignoring the similar concerns of the people working for him. In conditions when hundreds and thousands of people began to concentrate on industrial enterprises, other methods and means of rationalizing their labor were required than were used in manufacturing production. However, their search throughout the 19th century. was due to extensive factors. If you analyze this process. aimed at increasing labor productivity and its efficiency, then we can name several ways of influencing a person in order to maximize profits and rationally organize production.

First, during this period measures were implemented to maximize the working day. In many industries, the working day reached 16-18 hours.

Secondly, capitalist production in the 19th century. marked the beginning of the use of female and child labor.

The complete disregard for the human factor was complemented by the desire of employers to ensure total control over the work of workers and to improve [techniques and methods of supervision.

All the factors considered were aimed at such a search for production reserves, with the help of which they tried to pump out the maximum possible from the employee, regardless of the “humanity” of the means and methods of achieving profit.

Thus, the 18th and especially the 19th centuries. identified a growing contradiction between methods for achieving production efficiency and increasing labor productivity and the social status of the worker, which reflected the urgent need to take into account him, his demands, needs and interests. This was an objective need in line with the general trend of turning each person into a subject of the historical process, and, accordingly, into a subject of socio-economic relations.

It was this trend that led to the fact that by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries the idea objectively matured - to turn to those reserves that lie within the employee himself, to awaken his interest in effective and efficient activities. This was a truly revolutionary step, radically changing the entire situation in production. The discovery (scientific and practical) of the role of consciousness and behavior of people as subjects of economic activity made it possible to understand, comprehend, and then use the personal capabilities of the employee to increase production efficiency. This discovery actually marked the beginning of the emergence of the sociology of labor as an independent sociological discipline, which reflected both the general features inherent in all sociology - the study of social consciousness and behavior of people in a certain historical period, and specific ones, because their functioning in the process of labor activity was considered.

So, in full, a fundamentally different approach - the search for reserves of labor efficiency in the person himself, in the worker himself - emerged only at the border of the 20th and 20th centuries.

The beginning of a revolution in views on the essence and purpose of a worker is associated with the name of F. Taylor (1856-1915), who successfully combined a scientific approach and the genius of a production organizer.

In the mid-90s. Taylor published the work “How to Pay Workers in an Enterprise,” in which he posed the question: is it possible to create such conditions for each employee so that he can work more effectively, guided by his own motives, needs and interests, without petty and external control over the process and the results of his work? Answering this question in the affirmative, he substantiated and demonstrated in practice the possibility of such an organization of labor in which the worker, without penalties, without coercion, was aimed at revealing his essential powers. This was the beginning of new scientific searches and their practical implementation to use the potential, motivating impulses inherent in the human worker.

1.1 Stages of development of the sociology of labor

Marx has a remark: “...The history of industry and the existing objective existence of industry is an open book of human essential forces, sensually presented to us by human psychology, which until now has been considered not in its connection with the essence of man, but always only from the point of view of some external relation of utility... In ordinary, material industry... we have before us, under the guise of sensory, useful objects... the objectified essential forces of man.”

The first “page” of this “book”, devoted to the analysis of the worker as a subject of production life, was the focus on his material interest, which can rightfully be called the stage of “economic man”. This first step, taken by F. Taylor at the end of the 19th century, as production and the sociology of labor developed throughout the 20th century. was supplemented by new searches that opened up other possibilities inherent in human nature and abilities.

The sociology of labor has come a long and complex way from the first experiment in stimulating labor, embodied in the concept of “economic man,” to other stages in which new facets of the social potential of production workers were gradually discovered, learned and used - in technology (“technological man”), in professional training (“professional person”), in working conditions (“socio-biological person”). Then, from the 30s. XX century the search for social labor reserves was carried out in; the “second”, latent echelon of using human capabilities - in the socio-psychological climate (“socio-psychological person”), in human participation in management (“managing person”), in resolving conflict situations (“conflict person”). In the second half of the 20th century. the third stage of the discovery and use of social reserves of labor began, which was associated with an awareness of the role and significance of the worker’s creative capabilities, his civic well-being and place in the life of society and production.

PeriodsStagesContentsFirst studiesObservable reservesEconomic manIncentives for labor1890-1910Technological manOrganization of labor1900-1912Professional manVocational training1908-1915Social-biological manWorking conditions1920-1930Latent reservesSocial-psychological manSocial-psychological relations 30s XX century. Managing person Participation in management Since the late 30s. XX century. Conflict person Conflict resolution Since the 30s. XX century. Creative and civil reserves. Creative person. Participation in technical creativity. 50s. XX century. Social and everyday person. Creation of social infrastructure of labor. 60s. XX century. Socio-political personWorker as a citizen70s. XX century. Anthropocentric stage Integrated use of social reserves From 70-80. XX century

The table shows the years of the first studies of each stage to understand the role and influence of certain social reserves of the employee’s labor. These reserves did not remain unchanged: at one stage of his life a person is interested in certain methods of influence, and at another stage the same person reacted to other methods of inducing and stimulating work. These factors also depended on what kind of production a person worked in. What played a certain role in a particular organization did not work in another, or did not work as effectively as the stimulation of labor that underlay the concept of “economic man” was supposed to have gone through a gigantic path in its development, starting from the recommendations of F. Taylor to the justification and the use of fundamentally new labor stimulants, which were used at the end of the 20th century. in conditions of automated production, in the era of continuous information revolutions. A similar conclusion can be applied to the “technological”, and to the “socio-biological”, and to the “socio-psychological person”, etc. But one thing is certain - scientific and practical thought united in the search for reserves of labor and production. And this connection took place on a humanistic basis - on the recognition of the leading role of the consciousness and behavior of the employee - his professional knowledge, motives, needs, attitudes, value orientations, interests. It was the study of social reserves that constituted the essence and content of the new sociological discipline - the sociology of labor, and in production practice it determined the scientific foundations of management. And finally, it is necessary to note one more fact - the sociology of labor developed (unlike many other areas in sociology) under the direct influence of practice and real life, which largely determined its development.

2. Man as a subject of the labor process

Man is the central and determining figure of any production process. Without his participation, creative and unifying function, all production operations without exception - the functioning of mechanisms, tools and objects of labor - are dead and lifeless.

The human factor of production is a necessary element to which special requirements are imposed as an integral part of the labor process. In this regard, it is necessary to make a reservation that such an approach does not in any way reduce or belittle the role and importance of a person as a citizen, as a participant and creator of spiritual life, his selfhood and originality, which, as a rule, are more or less fully considered in the concepts of the sociology of personality .

The decisive role of man in production is due, firstly, to the fact that man is organizing the start of production.If there is no human being, all the components of production will turn into a heap of iron, metal, some buildings and structures.

Secondly, when talking about the human factor of production, the worker is considered not only as a consumer of certain benefits, the receipt of which is intended to guarantee wages, but also as a creator.

Third, Ultimately, the growth of labor productivity, production efficiency,transformations and improvements that occur in the process of work. And the fact that labor productivity in industry increased 100-140 times over the 20th century can be considered the most important indicator of the use of human capabilities.

Fourthly, the human factor manifests itself very clearly in a situation when it comes to the relationship between the interests of production and its workers. A person, performing any labor action, participating in the labor process, understands (imagines) what is required for production and to what extent this is combined with his personal interests.

All this allows us to assert that the sociology of labor concentrates its attention on the capabilities and abilities of the employee, the conditions for their implementation, and ways to harmonize personal interests with public interests in the process of production activity. In other words, we are talking about the worker as a subject who not only responds to the needs of production, but also formulates requirements for it, based on both individual and group motives, value orientations, and interests.

In the sociology of labor, not only economic (labor) consciousness and economic (labor) behavior are analyzed. To obtain scientifically based conclusions, an indispensable component of the study is the production environment, which can be understood in the broad sense of the word as the macroenvironment (the situation in the national economy as a whole, the economic situation in the country and even the world, the state of the sector of the economy in which a person works), as a meso-environment (socio-economic factors of the settlement structure - the settlement or region where a person lives and works) and as a micro-environment (i.e. the set of production conditions in which the employee performs his labor functions). This consideration of objective circumstances has its own logical explanation: if at the level of the macroenvironment the conditions for the development and functioning of a person as a citizen are provided, then at the level of the mesoenvironment the conditions and factors that influence the lives of people as residents of a certain spatial organization (region, city, village) are identified. As for the microenvironment, we are talking about objective external circumstances surrounding a person as a member of a specific production group, within which direct interaction takes place between its members or participants.

I would like to note that this characteristic of the sociology of work correlates with the interpretation of sociology as the sociology of life, does not oppose them to each other, and, on the contrary, establishes their logical correlation.

3. Types of labor in human life

3.1 “Non-standard” types of labor in people’s lives and the development of their personality

Early on, another type of labor activity arises - “spiritual production” (K. Marx), serving man and society with a variety of spiritual products, objectified in special forms of social experience - writing, symbolism, formulas, artistic images, mythology, behavioral attitudes, etc. Particular types of “spiritual production” are artistic, theoretical, projective activities, study and teaching, priesthood, show business, etc. Since the dawn of civilization, another type of labor activity has become widespread - organizational with numerous types of divisions - entrepreneurship, mediation, management, public administration, self-government, etc. The final “products” of this work - the coordination of collective actions and management decisions - imply particularly high public responsibility for the results of activities. On the other hand, this work activity is often not perceived by the public consciousness as work. In the conditions of modern society, with a decrease in the social role of domestic labor for everyday self-service, the social importance of “services” is growing, that is, socially organized labor activity to serve the needs of the population. Such specific categories of labor activity as “military labor,” maintaining public order, judicial activity, etc. retain and enhance the significance.

3.2 Latest trends

Freed from the extra burden of bulky equipment and numerous personnel, capital travels light, with nothing more than carry-on luggage: a briefcase, a laptop computer and a cell phone. This new quality of volatility has made [long-term] agreements both unnecessary and unwise: they can impede movement, thereby inhibiting competitiveness and limiting opportunities for productivity improvements.

Today the situation is changing, and the most important element of this change is the arrival of a new, “short-term” mentality to replace the “long-term” one. Marriages concluded “until death do us part” have now become rare: partners no longer expect to be in each other’s company for a long time. According to recent estimates, a young American with a moderate level of education will expect at least eleven job changes during his working life, and these expectations of changes in the areas of application of his abilities will likely increase before the working life of this generation ends. The slogan of the day was “flexibility,” which in relation to the labor market means the end of work in the form known and familiar to us, the transition to work on short-term, momentary contracts or without any at all, to work without any specified guarantees, but only until “the next notice.” " Reporting the results of a comprehensive study conducted in Holland on the changing meaning of work, Geert van der Laan notes that work has come to belong to the class of high, almost sporting achievements, practically inaccessible to most people of average ability who are looking for applications for them; and sport, as we know, now tends to lose the character of a popular pastime and turns into a competitive elitist activity involving large monetary stakes. “That small part of the population that has a job works very hard and efficiently, while the rest stand on the sidelines, unable to keep up with the pace of production” - and, we would add, due to the fact that the very way of working leaves less and less room for their qualifications. Working life is filled with uncertainty.

One can, of course, say that there is nothing particularly new in this situation, that working life has been full of uncertainties since time immemorial; Meanwhile, modern uncertainty represents an entirely new type of uncertainty. The prospect of a catastrophe that causes fear and chaos in one's life today is not something that can be brushed aside and that can be successfully confronted to the point of being completely overcome through joint efforts, taking a unified position, collectively discussing, coming to an agreement and taking the necessary measures. The most terrible disasters come today unexpectedly, choosing victims according to a strange logic or without it at all; blows fall as if according to someone’s unknown whim, so that it is impossible to know who is doomed and who is saved. The uncertainty of our day is a powerful individualizing force. It divides instead of unites, and since it is impossible to say who might come out ahead in this situation, the idea of ​​a “community of interests” turns out to be increasingly vague and, in the end, even incomprehensible. Today's fears, worries and sorrows are designed in such a way that you have to suffer alone. They are not added to others, are not accumulated into a “common cause,” and do not have a “natural address.” This strips the position of solidarity of its former status as a rational tactic and suggests a life strategy quite different from that which led to the creation of militant organizations for the defense of working class rights.

Conclusion

An analysis of the social theory of labor thus indicates the significant theoretical potential of a general sociological approach to the study of labor problems and the need for further work in this area.

Internal motivation plays an increasingly important role in employee behavior, guaranteeing diligence and good quality of work.

The means of overcoming the existing contradictions on the path to the formation of a person as a socio-political subject is to obtain complete and reliable information. This information is intended to awaken a person’s creative potential and direct them both to the development of the individual himself and to further radical improvement in the functioning of production, and the objective need to stimulate the creative powers of people is increasingly being combined with a person’s personal desire for self-expression. And as a consequence of this, human activity as a socio-political phenomenon only achieves results when it organically includes both knowledge accumulated at the previous stage about the physical, biological, socio-psychological capabilities of a person, and new information about his behavior at the present stage production development.

For a long time, social reserves and human capabilities were taken into account in different ways: more often spontaneously than consciously. Their implementation was influenced by the prevailing socio-economic conditions, which predetermined in whose interests these reserves inherent in the creative nature of man were used.

At the same time, assessing the importance of social reserves hidden in the consciousness and behavior of workers, we can conclude that the main factors of production are the aspirations, orientations, sympathies of people, and their willingness to voluntarily do work.

To the problems mentioned above are also added the criteria for the attitude towards labor of workers in Russia and Germany, Russian and American society as a whole - but these are separate issues.

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sociological work personality development

The concept and content of social and labor relations

Social and labor relations characterize economic,

psychological and legal aspects of the relationship between individuals and

social groups in processes caused by labor activity.

Analysis of social and labor relations is usually carried out in three directions: subjects, objects and types.

Subjects social and labor relations are individuals or social groups. For the modern economy, the main subjects of the relations under consideration are: the employee, the union of employees (trade union), the union of employers, and the state.

Employee is a person who has entered into an employment contract with a representative of an enterprise, public organization or state. An employee must have certain qualities, the actual assessment of which allows us to imagine the environment for the formation of social and labor relations. An employee, first of all, must have the readiness and ability to personally participate in social and labor relations, and have a certain attitude towards the preferred ways of participating in these relations.

Employer as a subject of social and labor relations, according to the international classification of the status of members of society in terms of their employment, is a person who works independently and constantly hires one or more workers to perform the work. The employer may be the owner of the means of production or his representative. In particular, the employer is the head of a state enterprise, who, in turn, is an employee in relation to the state.

Trade union is created to protect the socio-economic interests of employees or liberal professions in a certain field of activity. The most important areas of activity of trade unions are: ensuring employment, improving working conditions and remuneration.

State as a subject of social and labor relations in a market economy, it plays the following main roles: legislator, defender of the rights of citizens and organizations, employer, mediator and arbiter in labor disputes. The degree of implementation of each of these role functions of the state, the nature of their combination at each specific moment in time are determined by the historical, political, economic conditions of the development of the state. Therefore, the role of the state in social and labor relations may change. But in any case, the state, as a subject of social and labor relations, should be interested in the effective interaction of employees and employers.

Various relationships arise between the subjects of social and labor relations, which differ in levels:

– worker – worker;

– employee – employer;

– trade union – employer;

– employer – state;

– employee – state, etc.

Items social and labor relations are determined goals, which people strive to achieve at different stages of their life cycle. The following main stages are distinguished:

– from birth to graduation;

– period of work and/or family activity;

– the period after work activity.

At the first stage, social and labor relations are mainly associated with problems of general and special education; on the second - with problems of labor activity, including relations of hiring and firing, professional development, conditions and remuneration, on the third - with problems of pension provision and maintaining activity.

To the greatest extent, the subjects of social and labor relations are determined by two blocks of problems: employment, organization and remuneration. The first block determines the possibilities of providing people with the means of subsistence, as well as the realization of individual abilities. The second block includes working conditions, the nature of relationships between members of the production team, material compensation for labor costs, and opportunities for human development in the process of work.

Types of social and labor relations characterize the psychological, ethical and legal forms of relationships in the process of work. According to organizational forms, the following types of social and labor relations are distinguished: solidarity, paternalism, subsidiarity, partnership, conflict, discrimination.

Solidarity– involves shared responsibility and mutual assistance based on the common interests of a group of people. Most often they talk about the solidarity of trade union members when defending the interests of hired personnel. Members of employers' unions, as well as members of other unions, also show solidarity.

Paternalism characterized by a significant amount of regulation of social and labor relations by the state or enterprise management. It is carried out under the guise of “fatherly care” of the state for the needs of the population or the administration of an enterprise for its employees. An example of state paternalism is the former USSR. At the enterprise level, paternalism is characteristic of Japan and some other Asian countries.

Subsidiarity means a person’s desire for personal responsibility for achieving his goals and his actions in solving social and labor problems. Subsidiarity can be seen as the opposite of paternalism. If a person, in order to achieve his goals, joins a professional or other union, then subsidiarity can be realized in the form of solidarity. At the same time, a person acts in solidarity with full awareness of his goals and his personal responsibility, without succumbing to the influence of the “crowd”.

Partnership most typical for Germany. The economy of this country is based on a system of detailed legal documents, according to which employees, entrepreneurs and the state are considered as partners in solving economic and social problems. At the same time, trade unions act from the position of not only protecting the interests of hired personnel, but also the efficiency of production at enterprises and the national economy as a whole. Partnership relationships ensure the achievement of a synergistic effect from the coordinated activities of people and social groups.

Conflict is an extreme expression of contradictions in social and labor relations. The most obvious forms of labor conflicts are labor disputes, strikes, and mass layoffs (lockouts). Contradictions in social and labor relations are objectively inevitable and, under certain conditions, necessary for the development of economic systems. In this sense, conflicts can be useful, since they most clearly express the interests of the opposing parties. However, protracted conflicts lead to significant losses for the enterprise, its employees and the country’s economy as a whole. This determines the need for methods of rational management of conflict situations.

Discrimination is an arbitrary, illegal restriction of the rights of subjects of social and labor relations. Discrimination violates the principles of equality of opportunity in labor markets. Discrimination can be based on gender, age, race, nationality, religion and other grounds. Discrimination is possible when choosing a profession and entering educational institutions, promotion, remuneration, provision of enterprise services to employees, and dismissal.

Equality of opportunity in social and labor relations is ensured, first of all, by the legislative system. For Russia, this is the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, the Law on Employment of the Population of the Russian Federation. Russia has ratified the ILO conventions on equal opportunities in labor and employment.

By the nature of influence based on the results of economic activity, social and labor relations are distinguished:

– constructive, contributing to the successful activities of the enterprise and society;

– destructive, interfering with the successful activities of the enterprise and society.

Constructive are relationships of either cooperation, mutual assistance, or competition, organized so as to promote the achievement of positive results. Constructive interaction between company employees is based on the authority of managers, a system of lifelong employment, a high level of income, a rational management style, and a psychological atmosphere in the team.

Destructive relationships arise when the general orientation of the interests of employees and social groups does not correspond to the goals of the enterprise. The interests of enterprise employees may differ according to a number of characteristics: gender, age, health, temperament, level of ability, nationality, marital status, education, attitude to religion, social status, political orientation, income level, profession, place in the hierarchy of the enterprise, etc. . In itself, the difference between employees of an enterprise according to these and other characteristics does not necessarily lead to destructive relationships. There are many examples of effective cooperation between different people. The main condition for such cooperation is the presence of a unifying situation or idea, in front of which individual and group differences become insignificant.

Among the most important social relationships are those between managers and subordinates. The experience of developed countries shows that partnership relations are more effective than relations based on administrative coercion. Wealth inequality may be significant, but all employees should feel like partners at work.

8.2. Social partnership: concept, basic principles, system and forms

Domestic and world practice shows that there are two ways to form social and labor relations and resolve labor conflicts - violent and peaceful. Social partnership is a type and system of relations between employers and employees, in which, within the framework of social world coordination of their most important social and labor interests is ensured. Since the end of 1991, the term “social partnership” has been included in the practice of regulating social and labor relations in Russia. In real life, social partnership is a civilized method of resolving social conflicts at various levels.

Social partnership– system of relationships between employees,

employers, government authorities, local authorities

self-government aimed at ensuring coordination of interests

workers and employers on issues of regulation of labor relations

Relations between social partners should be based on principles developed by the ILO, which include:

– establishment of general and lasting peace based on social justice;

– providing employees with normal working conditions;

– recognition and guarantee of rights of association;

– the right of all people to material well-being and spiritual development in conditions of freedom, dignity and equal opportunity;

– full employment and improved living standards.

Along with the general principles of the ILO, on which the ideology of the entire system of social partnership is built, each ILO member state formulates specific principles organizing the work of social partners. In accordance with the Labor Code of the Russian Federation (Article 24), the main principles of social partnership are:

– equality of the parties;

– respect and consideration of the interests of the parties;

– interest of the parties in participating in contractual relations;

– state assistance in strengthening and developing social partnership on a democratic basis;

– compliance by the parties with laws and other regulatory legal acts;

– authority of the parties’ representatives;

– freedom of choice when discussing issues related to the world of work;

– voluntariness of accepting obligations;

– the reality of the obligations assumed by the parties;

– mandatory implementation of collective agreements and agreements;

– monitoring the implementation of adopted collective agreements and agreements;

– responsibility of the parties for failure to comply with collective agreements and agreements through their fault.

The social partnership system includes the following levels(Labor Code of the Russian Federation, Article 26): federal, regional, sectoral, territorial and organizational level.

Social partnership is carried out in forms(Labor Code of the Russian Federation, Article 27):

– collective negotiations on the preparation of draft collective agreements, agreements and their conclusion;

– mutual consultations on issues of regulation of labor relations;

– participation of employees and their representatives in the management of the organization;

– participation of representatives of employees and employers in the pre-trial resolution of labor disputes.

To ensure the regulation of social and labor relations, conduct collective negotiations and prepare draft agreements, collective agreements, their conclusion, organize monitoring of implementation at all levels on an equal basis, special commissions at all levels (Labor Code of the Russian Federation, Article 35).

The Labor Code of the Russian Federation determines the procedure for conducting collective bargaining (Articles 36 and 37), establishing agreements and resolving disagreements (Article 38).

The agreement may include mutual obligations of the parties on the following questions:

- salary;

– labor conditions and safety;

– work and rest schedules;

– development of social partnership;

– other issues determined by the parties.

Agreement- a legal act establishing general principles regulation of social and labor relations and related economic relations, concluded between authorized representatives of workers and employers at the federal, regional, sectoral (intersectoral) and territorial levels within their competence (Labor Code of the Russian Federation, Article 45).

Depending on the scope of regulation of social and labor relations, agreements can be concluded: general, regional, sectoral (intersectoral), territorial.

General Agreement defines the general principles of regulation of social and labor relations at the federal level.

Regional agreement establishes general principles for regulating social and labor relations at the level of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation.

Industry (inter-industry) agreement determines the general conditions of remuneration, labor guarantees and benefits for employees of the industry (sectors).

Territorial agreement establishes general working conditions, labor guarantees and benefits for employees in the territory of the relevant municipality.

The Labor Code of the Russian Federation also defines the procedure for developing a draft agreement and its conclusion, the validity of the agreement, the procedure for making changes and additions, registration and monitoring of implementation (Articles 47, 48, 49, 50, 51).

Collective agreement– a legal act regulating social and labor relations in an organization and concluded by employees and the employer represented by their representatives (Labor Code of the Russian Federation, Article 40)

– forms, systems and amounts of remuneration;

– payment of benefits, compensation;

– a mechanism for regulating wages taking into account rising prices, inflation levels, and fulfillment of indicators determined by the collective agreement;

– employment, retraining, conditions for releasing workers;

– working time and rest time, including issues of granting and duration of vacations;

– improving the working conditions and safety of workers, including women and youth;

– respect for the interests of employees during the privatization of organizations and departmental housing;

– environmental safety and health protection of workers at work;

– guarantees and benefits for employees combining work with training;

– health improvement and recreation for employees and members of their families;

– monitoring the implementation of the collective agreement, the procedure for making changes and additions to it, the responsibility of the parties, ensuring normal conditions for the activities of employee representatives;

– refusal to strike if the relevant conditions of the collective agreement are met;

– other questions.

The Labor Code of the Russian Federation also defines the procedure for developing a draft collective agreement and concluding its final version, the actions of the parties, the conditions for making changes and additions, registration procedures and monitoring implementation (Articles 42, 43, 44, 50, 51).

In addition, the Labor Code of the Russian Federation discusses possible forms of employee participation in the management of an organization (Article 43). Articles 54 and 55 define responsibility of the parties social partnership:

– for avoiding participation in collective bargaining;

– failure to provide information necessary for conducting collective negotiations and monitoring compliance with a collective agreement or agreement;

– for violation or failure to fulfill contractual obligations.

Planning of social development of labor collectives

To realize a targeted impact on social processes in terms of the development of teams and individual citizens, they must be subject to management at all levels.

Social development management– a set of methods, techniques and procedures that allow solving social problems of personnel on the basis of a scientific approach, knowledge of the patterns of social processes, accurate analytical calculations and verified social standards.

It follows from the definition that social development management is an organizational mechanism for a pre-thought-out, predicted, complex impact on the social environment.

These goals are served by social planning, or social development planning labor collectives.

With Russia's transition to market relations, issues of planning social development at enterprises were relegated to the background, and perhaps even to the third place. Some issues are reflected in collective agreements, but not all are calculated and justified for the duration of the agreement. Most organizations now have no collective agreements at all. Therefore, the need to work on planning the social development of organizations is very relevant.

Social development means changes for the better in the social environment of an organization, which is the object of management of the organization and at the same time an integral part of personnel management. According to its purpose, social development management is focused exclusively on people, on creating appropriate working and living conditions for workers, and on the constant improvement of these conditions.

To the main factors of social environment development organizations include:

organization potential– these are the material, technical, organizational and economic capabilities of the organization (its size and territorial location, the number and quality of personnel, the nature of leading professions, industry affiliation and profile of the enterprise, volume of work, form of ownership, financial position, state of fixed assets and technical level of production, content and organizational forms of the labor process, the image of the organization, its traditions, etc.) These are the basic conditions that have a diverse and complex impact on the social environment, encourage and ensure the social development of the organization;

social infrastructure is a complex of facilities designed to provide life support to the organization’s employees and members of their families, to satisfy social, cultural and intellectual needs (housing and public utilities, medical and treatment institutions, educational and cultural facilities, trade and public catering, household services, sports facilities, collective summer cottages and gardening partnerships);

labor conditions and safety- these are factors that, one way or another, affect the well-being and useful output of workers, ensure safe work performance, prevention of injuries and occupational diseases (psychophysiological, sanitary-hygienic, aesthetic and socio-psychological conditions of the production environment and the labor process; uniform regulatory requirements labor protection, state supervision and public control of compliance with the legal rights of workers to work that meets safety and hygiene requirements, compliance by employers and employees with labor protection requirements, etc.);

material reward the labor contribution of employees includes: wages in accordance with its quantity and quality, compensation for additional labor costs, pensions, scholarships, benefits, etc., ensuring an appropriate standard of living;

social protection of workers organizations are social insurance, compliance with civil rights and social guarantees established by the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, collective agreement and other legal acts;

socio-psychological climate- this is the total effect of the influence of many factors influencing the organization’s personnel. It manifests itself in work motivation, communication of workers, their interpersonal and group connections;

after hours, which includes the conditions for rest and recuperation of workers, the arrangement of their home life, their performance of family and social responsibilities (sleep, hygiene, food, movement to and from work, housekeeping and subsidiary farming, childcare and activities with them, etc.) .d.);

free time is of particular importance for the comprehensive development of personality. It serves to restore the physical and intellectual strength of workers and is associated with the satisfaction of human socio-cultural needs (reading literature, cinema, theater, watching television, communicating with relatives and friends, studying, etc.).

Based on this, we can formulate main goals of social development organizations:

– improving the social structure of workers, their demographic and professional qualification composition;

– regulation of the number of employees, increasing their educational, cultural and technical level;

– improvement of ergonomic, psychophysiological, sanitary-hygienic, and aesthetic and other working conditions, labor protection and safety of workers;

– ensuring social insurance of employees, compliance with their rights and social guarantees;

– motivation both by means of material rewards and various incentives for effective work, proactive and creative attitude to work, group and individual responsibility for the results of joint activities;

– creation and maintenance of a healthy moral and psychological atmosphere in the team, optimal interpersonal and intergroup connections;

– growth in the living standards of workers and their families, full use of leisure time.

Social planning at an enterprise should be preceded by a comprehensive sociological research work collective, the purpose of which may be to study the social structure of workers, identify its weak links and areas for improvement. The issues to be studied are the attitude of people to work, the factors of attractiveness and unattractiveness of work in the enterprise as a whole and in each of its divisions. Particular attention should be paid to studying the degree of content of work, its conditions and level of payment, staff turnover, labor discipline, and value orientations in the team. All this will make it possible to develop scientifically based recommendations for changing the social parameters of the workforce, as well as specific proposals for various areas of work in the enterprise team. Such recommendations and proposals become the basis for social planning for the future.

In terms of social development, the following should be formed sections of work.

1) Improving the social structure of personnel. In this section it is advisable to include such issues as: increasing the general educational and professional level of workers, reducing the share of low-skilled labor, changing (if necessary) the gender and age structure of personnel. The work of women, teenagers, and people of pre-retirement age is considered separately. As a result, those structural changes that are advisable to carry out among these categories of workers are indicated.

2) Impact on social development factors production and increasing its efficiency. This includes activities related to the technical re-equipment of production; improving the organization of work, ensuring an increase in the content of work; improving wages, etc.

3) Improving working and living conditions production workers . To carry out work in this direction you should:

· highlight areas and units with unfavorable sanitary and hygienic working conditions;

· provide measures to improve the working environment, allowing to reduce the share or completely eliminate work that is difficult and harmful to people’s health;

· provide for measures to ensure compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards, labor safety standards, to organize well-equipped household premises, food intake points, medical centers, etc.;

· highlight the issues of providing workers with housing, preschool institutions, recreational facilities, etc.

4) Instilling labor discipline, developing labor activity and creative initiative. Measures in this area of ​​work are developed based on an analysis of the value orientations of employees and should ensure high labor and production discipline, the development of various forms of personnel involvement in production management.

In addition to social development plans, special programs can be developed aimed at solving the most pressing problems for the organization. For example, such as: “Health”, “Youth”, “Women’s labor”, “Working conditions”, etc.

It is advisable to restore, and where they were not developed, the so-called social passports of the organization. Social passport data is used in the development of social development plans.

Social passport– document,

over time (by year since the establishment of the organization)

Planning for social development at an enterprise and the implementation of such plans ensures an increase in social efficiency, creating conditions for increasing the economic efficiency of the organization and the well-being of its personnel.

Section 4. Social and psychological aspects of work activity

Chapter 2. The social aspect of labor in public life.

Let us analyze the social aspect of work in the life of society as a whole and its impact on individuals.

The social aspect of labor lies in the fact that people, carrying out any activity, create some new product necessary for society, i.e. reproduce certain public goods. Human life in society, personal development is impossible without socialization. The influence of the socio-political structure of the country of residence affects the life of an individual, both in personal and social terms, and in labor terms. Famous Russian psychologist A.N. Leontyev (1903-1979) wrote the following: “It goes without saying that the activity of each individual person depends on his place in society, on the conditions befalling him, on how it develops in unique individual circumstances.” .

Of course, when we say the word “activity,” we mean by it not only human labor activity, but most often activity is associated directly with creative work, i.e. has a subject focus. Let us return again to Leontiev: “The main, or, as they sometimes say, constitutive, characteristic of activity is its objectivity. Actually, the very concept of activity already implicitly contains the concept of its subject (Gegenstand). The expression “objectless activity” is devoid of any meaning... the prehistory of human activity begins with the acquisition of objectivity by life processes.”

Describing the process of motivating people's work, we showed that human activity is primarily governed by needs, and only then by interests and other values. But needs drive activity if they are objective. A.N. Leontyev wrote that “the concept of activity is necessarily connected with the concept of motive” and further “The main components of individual human activities are the actions that carry them out.”

That is, if a physiological need, according to A. Maslow, for example, satisfying the feeling of hunger, i.e. the process of obtaining food is currently the main motive of a person, then for this he must perform certain actions that can be aimed both directly at satisfying the need (buy food, cook food) and at making a snare for hunting or fishing gear (in society with natural-economic relations), later transferred to other people for the purpose of extraction, part of which will fall to him. Thus, human activity is often a product of collective social labor. We have already discussed above that the labor process in society is a matter that has a moral background. Morality (or ethics) is one of the forms of social consciousness, a set of principles and norms of behavior characteristic of people of a given society. Compliance with moral standards is ensured by the power of social influence.

From this perspective, one cannot help but focus on the problems of work ethics. Ethics itself is the doctrine of morality, its origin and development, the rules and norms of people’s behavior, their responsibilities towards each other, towards society, etc. Work ethics is, accordingly, the doctrine of people’s attitude towards work. Work ethics has existed for a long time; it, like many other teachings, was generated by religious doctrines that formed the basis for the development of human civilization, including morality and culture.

In 2004, a very interesting book by V. Tarlinsky “Vocation – True? Imaginary? , which examines religious work ethic issues in different religions and countries in an accessible manner and in great detail. In particular, the author of the book writes: “There are no religions that would call on a person not to engage in labor activity, not to be active in business practice, since there are no religions that are devoid of common sense. There are only religions in which issues of labor activity are expressed less clearly, less clearly, more vaguely than in others.” Let us note one very interesting fact brought out by the author of the book. It lies in the fact that the main labor achievements, as well as scientific discoveries in the field of labor theory, which we mentioned in the first chapters, were made in those countries where the Protestant religion and, accordingly, the Protestant work ethic existed. These are countries such as Germany, Great Britain and partly the USA. The hard work of the Germans and the British is always and everywhere noted. Such famous scientists as W. Petty, A. Smith, who laid the foundations of the labor theory of value, Benjamin Franklin, a scientist and politician who fought for American independence, and Frederick Taylor - the “founding father” of management as a management science, the founder of sociological science Max Weber and the German scientist and politician Ludwig Erhard, who made post-war Germany a country with a socially oriented market economy, came from religious Protestant families.

The Protestant work ethic lies in the fact that hard work among peoples professing this religion, which is a variety of the Christian religion, is an innate phenomenon, based on a conscious love of work in all its manifestations, and not work under pressure. Whereas in other religious movements, in particular in Catholicism, as well as in Orthodoxy, which is the dominant religion in Russia, the attitude towards work is of a different nature. Orthodox monks often engaged in so-called “work,” i.e. transformed for themselves the Christian necessity of labor into labor service, which took the form of heavy physical work within the framework of a subsistence monastic economy. They had practically no time left for the spiritual life, which was actively lived by monks in Catholic monasteries of the same time. This religious work ethic led to social humiliation, personal poverty, a desire to detract from the beauty of the buildings being created, and indifference to the quality of the products produced. Then such ethics moved from religious to secular life. We are still reaping the fruits of this phenomenon. A large part of the population of the Russian Federation, especially in rural areas, fully applies the “X” theory of D. McGregor, based on the postulates that a person is lazy and must be forced to work under threat of punishment. Some forms of forced labor that we wrote about above, in particular the labor of prisoners, which are, in essence, punishment by work, cannot in any way contribute to the conscious development in people of hard work, responsibility and initiative in the work they perform. And without this it is impossible to talk about building a fair social state in our country.

Of course, each class and each historical period had its own morality, expressed in religious principles, reflecting the views of the “masters of life” on the social structure, proclaiming goals and objectives that should be achieved in a given society. However, in almost any civilized society that had state forms of government, labor stood very highly from a moral point of view. All representatives of the “exploiting” classes understood perfectly well that it was the labor of slaves, serfs, and peasants that allowed them to live as they were accustomed to, and created the basis for their well-being and social structure. Therefore, the epithets used with the word labor have always had a sublime character. “Holy work”, “noble work”, “military work”, “work is a matter of honor”. Of course, some representatives of the ruling classes despised representatives of the working strata of the population, but only because they were poorly and dirtyly dressed or they “smelled bad,” precisely because their work was hard.

The 17th-century French philosopher François de La Rochefoucauld (1613-1680) wrote in his “Maxims”: “Physical labor helps to forget about moral suffering; That’s why poor people are happy people.”

At the same time, representatives of high society did not despise the labor process itself. Back in the 17th century, the Russian reformer Tsar Peter the Great, traveling around Europe, himself studied the craft of a ship carpenter in Holland and forced his entourage to learn the craftsmanship. And in the 18th century, when humanism dominated European society, liberal creations of encyclopedists were in fashion, Baroque and Rococo styles prevailed in architecture and art, representatives of the ruling classes tried to elevate and ennoble the concept of “work”, washing away the patina of heaviness and dirt from it. For example, King Louis XV (1710-1774) worked as a typesetter in a printing house, typing “Economic Tables”, according to the instructions of their author and at the same time his personal physician, the head of the school of physiocrats, Francois Quesnay. The grandson of the monarch, the last king of pre-revolutionary France, Louis XVI (1754-1793), loved to work on a lathe, making various trinkets and snuff boxes. His wife, Queen Marie Antoinette (1755-1793), ordered the construction of a toy village in Versailles, which included a poultry yard, a cowshed and a fun had fun there, through the process of labor, for example, she milked the cow herself (what a paradox the “queen-milkmaid”) or looked after the birds. True, it should be noted that the cow was perfumed with various incense, her horns were gilded, and she was decorated with multi-colored ribbons and bells, but the fact itself remains obvious. The Queen was strongly influenced by the ideas of J.-J. Rousseau. She tried her best to learn to provide at least her family with agricultural products through her own labor: she looked after the cows, milked them and fed them from the royal table. However, for some reason the revolutionary people regarded her works as a subtle mockery of starving Paris.

In general, the French royal court was very fond of the idealized life of the common people. This was called "pastoral". The relationships between shepherdesses and shepherdesses, the love scenes that played out between them in the process of performing their labor functions - herding sheep and goats, are reflected in many tapestries and paintings of this romantic period of time. Performances based on the works of J.J. were staged at court. Rousseau and other liberal writers, and the queen herself, and her court ladies, as well as the princes of the blood, gladly dressed up as simple peasants and played scenes from their lives.

Of course, such a toy working life was terribly far from the hard, beggarly labor of the common people, exhausted under the burden of unbearable taxes and taxes, but, nevertheless, this confirms the fact that work has always been considered a moral matter in all layers of society. Moreover, the ruling classes also worked, performing functions of governing the state, fighting on the battlefield, or creating some kind of artistic value. After all, the palaces or monuments that we admire to this day were created, albeit by simple workers, but according to the plan and in accordance with the tastes of the owners. It is to Queen Marie Antoinette, executed in 1793, at the age of 37, accused of deliberately ruining the French treasury, that France, and the entire civilized world, owe the decoration and improvement of the Petit Trianon Palace, built in 1761 in the style of French classicism, as well as the construction of many other monuments, including landscape art, at Versailles, which we admire to this day. On her initiative, in 1779, the Mill Village was built in a pseudo-peasant style. With her, a dairy farm, a mill and a hut appeared from 1783 - 1786.

Besides this, there are also many beautiful paintings and sculptural portraits of the Queen herself, and these are also world heritage. To the credit of the fanatical French Jacobin revolutionaries, they preserved the cultural and historical heritage of France for posterity by destroying many aristocrats and other enemies of the revolution, including the royal family.

The historical and economic excursion we conducted at the beginning of this book also indicates that work has always been of an exalted nature and scientific thinkers, mainly philosophers or religious figures, called for creative work and love of work. This is evidenced by the saying of the Apostle Paul, “If you do not work, let him not eat.”

Another social aspect of work is hard work.

Hard work is “a character trait consisting in a person’s positive attitude towards the process of work. Diligence is manifested in activity, initiative, conscientiousness, passion and satisfaction with the work process. Psychologically, hard work presupposes an attitude towards work as the main meaning of life, the need and habit of working.”

Therefore, based on this definition, hard work is a personal property of a person, which can be expressed through the factors that make up the need for self-expression according to the substantive theories of motivation described in part two of this work. Therefore, if this is a character trait, then it is not characteristic of everyone. After all, there is “voluntary unemployment” in society, i.e. asocial elements who do not want to work do not want to work, and not because it is difficult for them. The author conducted a survey of two dozen different ragged, exhausted middle-aged people, called “homeless people,” begging for alms from passers-by, to find out whether they had tried to work, the answer, as a rule, was the following: “I tried... I didn’t like it.” And this is quite symptomatic, since the character of such people often includes a tendency towards vagrancy, begging or theft, in many cases transmitted genetically from their ancestors. And the percentage of such people in our society is quite large. We see them even in the center of Moscow, rummaging through garbage dumps, emitting an unhealthy smell within a radius of several meters. Therefore, the actions of the Soviet authorities, despite the fact that in principle they were a violation of individual rights, in deporting such people, called “parasites” 101 km from Moscow and, as a rule, forced to work in labor treatment centers, from the point of view from the point of view of maintaining public order, can be considered a positive phenomenon.

Let us return, however, to the term diligence or love of work. Here we can pose a rhetorical question: can a person consciously and voluntarily love his work? In the minds of the majority of society, love is something sublime, a high degree of emotional positive attitude towards an object, placing it at the center of the individual’s life needs. If you conduct a survey of randomly selected people on the street about what kind of love is there? Then, as a rule, we will receive the following answers: love for a beautiful woman, for a mother, for children, for art, and finally, love for the Motherland. Although the latter sounds very pretentious, nevertheless, all normal people love their homeland, i.e. the place where they were born.

But you can also hear the option “love of work.” However, doesn’t this answer mean that if a person loves work, then he is deprived of any other joys of life? Perhaps he is an orphan, or does not have a beloved woman or family. After all, even the most beautiful work, aimed at creating literary or artistic works, is still a difficult, tedious process of long-term work, the fruits of which cannot be enjoyed immediately. Let's analyze this phenomenon.

On the one hand, there really is love for work, this is self-expression, the realization of all one’s abilities and merits. And this is a character trait conditioned by the process of upbringing in the family and in society. If a person has been taught from early childhood that he has to work, “that without work you can’t catch a fish out of the pond,” then, as a rule, having achieved independence, he will continue to work, believing that in order to receive certain benefits, both on the material plane, and spiritual (position in society, respect of others) is easiest through work. Moreover, the more he loves his family, the more efforts he will make to acquire these benefits in order not only to provide for his family, but also to elevate it along with himself. And this is normal. At the same time, work itself may not be an object of love, but the urgent need to work, the habit of work developed over the years, transforms the results of work into internal rewards, bringing a person a feeling of satisfaction and motivating him to further increase the efficiency of his work.

On the other hand, in the absence of such upbringing in the family, an individual may turn into the asocial element described above if society in the form of a school or any other public institutions does not intervene in time, preferably in childhood or adolescence. Education through labor is one of the proven methods of pedagogy. A.S. Makarenko (1888-1939) in his work “Pedagogical Poem” described in detail and vividly how street children, i.e. teenagers who lost their parents as a result of the revolution and the Civil War, acquired all the bad habits and lived by theft and begging, dirty and ragged, studying and working in a special colony, were later able to become worthy members of society. Of course, this book, written in the era of socialism, is ideological in nature, but this does not diminish the merits of labor education methods.

Many domestic psychologists wrote in their articles about the need to use elements of labor education in working with socially maladjusted children. Such activities help to give purpose to the lives of mentally retarded children, discipline them, and allow them to acquire work skills that help them survive, not only through a disability pension, but also through possible work achievements.

There is another way to look at this problem. Love for work is sublimation, i.e. a mechanism for psychological protection of one’s consciousness, due to the absence of other objects of desire. This version also has a right to exist. If we look at the biographies of many great people, scientists, composers, artists who created invaluable scientific achievements or creations that are the heritage of mankind, we will notice that in their personal lives they were extremely unhappy, often precisely because of their genius, which put their work above their concerns about family, life, daily bread. Their wives left them, their children did not remember them, often they were remembered only by their students, who shared with them the hardships and fruits of joint labor. These people loved their work more than anything else in the world. It was their creation, their self-expression. But geniuses are rare. But how do other ordinary people behave? Sociological studies conducted by the author to study labor motivation at enterprises of various forms of ownership revealed that the majority of people who have reached retirement age, regardless of the level of education (higher or secondary), place of work (commercial bank or metro depot), are characterized by higher needs - respect and self-expression. Satisfying these needs is akin to love of work. The author believes that there are two factors at play here. The first is that these people have already raised their children, taken them on an independent path, thereby investing their love in them, of course the feeling of love for children has not decreased, but has taken on other forms, the sense of responsibility for children has decreased. Elderly families break up due to natural aging and death. There are many lonely widows and widowers left, and instead of living love for each other, there remains love in the heart, i.e. memory. But the one who remains must move on, live every day and do something. Otherwise, his life becomes meaningless. This is where labor, in any form, comes onto the scene. For more educated people inclined to creativity, it takes the form of creating memoirs or some other records and publications, for other people in the form of some simple work, for example, as a museum caretaker. There are people who have not stopped working at their workplace throughout their lives, and when the branches of the tree called life gradually fall away (family, relatives, etc.), work remains the only thing that is the trunk of life and makes a person live and fight , despite the overwhelming illnesses.

The second factor is that in the love of work, again depending on the person’s personality type, his psychological characteristics and business qualities, there may be an unhealthy, painful element, an obsessive attraction to work. It can occur in quite prosperous people, wonderful family men, as a rule, middle-aged people with certain official powers. This state of affairs is called “workaholism.” The word “workaholic” is more familiar to our ears. The second part of this word recalls another human disease - alcoholism. And although there is nothing funny about this disease, on the contrary, it is a tragedy, but with the light hand of satirists and humorists, it makes most people smile. Accordingly, the first term also makes me smile. However, “workaholic” is not “alcoholic.” That's much better. Although it is possible that someone who is called a workaholic needs some socio-psychological help.

A workaholic recognizes himself as such, and he speaks about it with regret. Often, modern, beautiful, confident women are workaholics. Workaholism manifests itself in the desire to do one’s job in the best possible way and force other people around him, usually his subordinates, to do it also in the best possible way, regardless of their moral and physical capabilities. Analyzing the substantive theories of work motivation above, we considered higher-order needs and, in particular, the need for power. This need often does not manifest itself in achieving personal power, i.e. increasing their status, namely the ability to influence other people to achieve their goals or the goals of the organization. Higher-order needs, as well as self-expression, begin to motivate people after satisfying all other groups of needs to a greater extent. This explains the fact that workaholics, as a rule, are wealthy people, not constrained by funds, and often work with exaggerated enthusiasm, even in positions that are not very highly paid, but provide sufficient power. It follows that the main motivator of workaholics is the need for power, which is not properly satisfied. The reason for workaholism is an overestimation of one’s role in the process of collective labor and the desire to evaluate the work of subordinates according to one’s own scale of values.

The most negative point in the phenomenon of workaholism is that a person, especially if he is a leader, does not find proper satisfaction in his needs, and most importantly creates a difficult socio-psychological climate for his subordinates and deprives them of internal rewards from the results of their work.

There are two ways to combat workaholism as a socio-psychological phenomenon.

The first way is waiting. As we have already noted, human needs are gradually satisfied and replaced by others. Likewise, the need for power can be satisfied over time and replaced by some other one, for example, the need for knowledge, or some external circumstances can force a person to descend to an earlier level of satisfaction of needs, for example material or security needs. In addition, with age, a person tends to revise his assessments of the surrounding reality. This usually happens once every five years.

See for example: Ivanova A.Ya., Mandrusova E.S. “On the issue of interdisciplinary interaction of specialists in working with children with social maladjustment.” Social and mental health of the child and family; protection, help, return to life. Materials of the All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference. M.: Publishing House "Grail", 1998, p.185.

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3. Social aspects of labor activities
Introduction. Labor is the purposeful activity of people aimed at creating material and cultural values.

This section reveals the essence of labor as a broad social process. Social functions and forms of labor are identified, and its social quality is determined.

The sociological aspect of labor relations is compared with the functional approach. Types of social and labor relations are distinguished depending on the content, subjects of activity, method of communication, scope of power and other reasons.

The content and types of labor adaptation, its main stages, and the conditions for full adaptation of the subject in the work collective are determined.

A definition of social control in the sphere of labor is given, its main functions are highlighted. A classification of types and forms of social control in the workforce, types of social norms and sanctions is given.

Social and labor relations are explained using the concepts of job satisfaction, employment, unemployment, mobility, and migration.

This section also introduces the basic methods of resolving labor conflicts and the principles of analyzing the results of economic activity.

^ 3.1 Labor as a basic socio-economic process:

social essence of labor, classification

social and labor relations.

Labor is the basis and an indispensable condition for human life. By influencing the natural environment, changing and adapting it to their needs, people not only ensure their existence, but also create conditions for the development and progress of society. The labor process is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The main forms of its manifestation are the expenditure of human energy, the interaction of a worker with the means of production and the production interaction of workers with each other. The role of labor in the development of man and society lies in the fact that in the process of labor not only material and spiritual values ​​are created that are intended to meet people’s needs, but also the workers themselves develop, acquire skills, reveal their abilities, replenish and enrich knowledge. The creative nature of labor finds its expression in the emergence of new ideas, progressive technologies, more advanced and highly productive tools, new types of products, materials, energy, which, in turn, lead to the development of needs. In the process of labor, labor relations arise between carriers of living labor. They can be considered in two aspects: functional and sociological

Functional the aspect of labor relations involves identifying the required number of workers, the proportions of their professional and qualified composition based on the necessary time spent on the production of a certain product of labor, the labor intensity of manufacturing the product, etc.

Sociological aspect of labor relations means identifying equality and inequality between participants in the labor process, the social status of individual subjects and groups of workers, their interests, motives, labor behavior, etc.

Labor is not only an economic, but also a fundamental social factor that determines all the life aspirations of modern society. Labor determines economic activity and social structure, the most important factors in the socialization of the individual, the culture of society, the way of life of people, the level of their material well-being, etc. By interacting with each other in the labor process, people enter into a wide network of social and labor relations. Thanks to them, the results of economic activity are distributed (the economic function of labor relations) , employees are given the opportunity to participate in the affairs of the enterprise (democratic function), conditions are provided for subjects for their integration into public life ( social function) . Among the variety of social and labor relations, their characteristic types and types are distinguished.

The main types of social and labor relations include:

1. Paternalistic relations. They are characterized by strong regulation on the part of the state or enterprise administration.

2. Partnership relations are based on contractual regulation, taking into account the interests of all parties involved.

3. Competitive relations express the desire to obtain unilateral advantages without taking into account the interests of the other party.

4. Solidarity relations presuppose shared responsibility and mutual assistance based on the common interests of the parties.

5. Subsidiary relations mean the desire of subjects for personal responsibility for their actions and achieving their goals.

6. Discriminatory relations are based on arbitrariness, illegal restriction of the rights of subjects of social and labor relations.

7. Conflict relations express the aggravation of contradictions between the subjects of social and labor relations.

I also highlight types of social and labor relations (Table 3.1.1)

Table 3.1.1 Types of social and labor relations

№	Basis of classification	Types of relationships
1	By content of activity	Production-functional Professional qualifications Social and organizational
2	By subjects of relations	Interorganizational (interproduction) Intra-organizational (intra-production)
3	By the nature of income distribution	According to labor contribution Not in accordance with labor contribution
4	By way of communication	Impersonal (mediated) Personal (direct)
5	By volume of power	Horizontally Vertically
6	According to the degree of regulation	Formal (official) Informal (unofficial)

The social essence of labor is expressed, first of all, through social functions and forms of labor, as well as the social quality of labor. Basic social functions of labor.

1. Creation of social wealth (material and spiritual).

2. Realization of potential social wealth (natural minerals, intellectual potential of society).

3. Development, self-expression and self-affirmation of personality.

Labor is realized in such social forms as socialized labor, small-group labor, and individual labor.

The social quality of labor consists in the impact of a worker’s work activity on his social roles, social status, interests, educational and professional qualification levels, and other social characteristics. This impact is due to the influence of tools, technology, working conditions, forms of labor organization, etc.

Nature of work reflects the way the producer connects with the means of production, determined by the property relations prevailing in a given society. Thus, in a slave-owning society, the slave and the means of labor were united as the property of the slave owner. And this gave rise to the worker’s personal dependence on the one who appropriated the results of his work. In a capitalist society, a worker can connect with the means of labor by selling his labor power and remaining personally free. Thus, labor by its nature can be slave, corvee, hired (Sokolova G.N., 2002).

Attitude to work , according to G.N. Sokolova , – complex social and labor phenomenon. This is a characteristic of the type of spiritual connection of an individual with an object, means and product of labor, as well as with the production environment. Its main elements are:

Motives and orientations of labor behavior;

Real or actual work behavior;

Verbal work behavior (employees’ assessment of their work situation).

Among the indicators of attitude towards work, there are objective indicators (responsibility, conscientiousness, initiative, discipline, etc.) and subjective indicators (overall job satisfaction, partial satisfaction with individual elements of the labor process: wages, working conditions, relationships in the team, etc. .).

Attitudes towards work are influenced by a number of factors: production and non-production. Production factors include: pay and working conditions; labor organization; production independence; relationships in the team, etc. Among the non-production factors of attitude towards work, the following are distinguished: the standard of living of workers; educational and professional level of employees; work experience; development of social infrastructure; state of labor morale, etc.

The concept of labor content expresses the production and technical side of the connection of a worker with the means of labor, characterizes the labor process as the interaction of a person with nature (tools and objects of labor). Contents of work represents a set of actions performed by an employee and their relationship, the composition of specific labor functions. The following labor functions of an employee are distinguished: energy; technological; control and regulatory; managerial; informational. Using manual technology, man exchanged substances with nature through a mediating function; machine technology allowed man to exchange substances with nature through a regulatory function; the modern scientific and technological revolution gives him the opportunity to control the internal mechanism of natural phenomena and objects with the help of the controlling function (Sokolova G.N., 2002).

^ Content of work - this is the saturation of his mental activity, an expression of the complexity, diversity of work functions performed, and the intellectual and psychological characteristics of work.

The main factor influencing changes in the structure of labor functions is scientific and technological progress. Under its influence, the content and meaningfulness of work change.

^ Working conditions is a set of socio-economic, technical and organizational, socio-hygienic and socio-psychological conditions that affect a person’s health and performance, his attitude towards work, the degree of job satisfaction, production efficiency, standard of living and personal development.

^ Job satisfaction - this is the evaluative attitude of a person or group of people to their own work activity, its various aspects, the most important indicator of an employee’s adaptation at a given enterprise.

There are a number of fairly specific meanings of job satisfaction, reflecting its role, functions, consequences in socio-economic life, in organization and management.

1. As a result of studying people’s evaluative attitudes towards well-being in everyday life, the socio-economic system, and social climate, it was found that work and career are of the greatest importance to them, along with such values ​​as health, personal life, and good leisure, often ranking in this ranking first position. In a word, job satisfaction is, first of all, social satisfaction, the most important indicator of the quality of life of individuals and groups, the population, and the nation. The questions “how are we living?” and “how do we work?” largely coincide for some people in their youth, for others in adulthood.

2. Job satisfaction has functional and production significance. It affects the quantitative and qualitative results of work, the urgency and accuracy of completing tasks, and commitment to other people. Attitude towards work can be based on the employee’s self-assessment of his business qualities and performance. At the same time, self-satisfaction and self-dissatisfaction, depending on the specific case, can have a positive and negative effect on work.

3. The employer’s concern for people’s satisfaction with their work determines some essential types of managerial behavior and labor relations in general. The employer is often skeptical about the production and economic effect of any measures to humanize labor and considers their financing irrational. Funds for these purposes are usually spent under pressure from trade unions, the working masses or legal authorities.

4. Satisfactory, from the employee’s point of view, the nature and working conditions are the most important factor in the authority of the manager. For workers, the best administration is the one that can make their work better.

5. Job satisfaction is often an indicator of staff turnover and the need for appropriate action to prevent it.

6. Depending on job satisfaction, the demands and aspirations of employees increase or decrease, including in relation to remuneration for work (satisfaction can reduce criticality with respect to remuneration).

7. Job satisfaction is a universal criterion for explaining and interpreting a variety of actions of individual workers and work groups. It determines the style, method, manner of communication between the administration and the workforce. In other words, the behavior of satisfied and dissatisfied people differs, and the management of satisfied and dissatisfied people also differs.

^ Labor adaptation and social control

in the work team

Labor adaptation is a social process of a person’s mastering a new work situation, in which, unlike the biological one, both the person and the work environment actively influence each other and are adaptive systems. When entering a job, a person is actively involved in the system of professional and socio-psychological relations of the work collective, assimilates new social and labor roles, values, norms, coordinates his individual position with the goals and objectives of the work collective, thereby subordinating his behavior to the requirements of the enterprise. .

There are primary and secondary labor adaptation. Primary occurs when an employee initially enters the work environment, secondary occurs when changing a workplace, profession, position, etc.

Labor adaptation has a complex structure and represents the unity of professional, socio-psychological, social-organizational and cultural-everyday adaptation.

1. Professional adaptation is expressed in mastering professional skills, developing the necessary professional qualities, acquiring professional skills, etc.

2. Socio-psychological adaptation consists of a person mastering the socio-psychological characteristics of a work organization, entering into the system of relationships that has developed in it, and positive interaction with members of the organization.

3. Social-organizational adaptation means mastering by a new subject the organizational structure of the organization, work routine, work and rest schedule, and features of the management system.

4. Psychophysiological adaptation is the process of a person mastering the conditions and rhythm of work, sanitary and hygienic comfort, psychophysiological stress of work, etc.

5. Cultural and everyday adaptation is the participation of new members of the workforce in activities traditional for a given enterprise outside of working hours.

During the adaptation process, an employee goes through three main stages: 1) familiarization with the work situation; 2) adaptation to the work situation; 3) association with the work situation.

Indicators of the degree of adaptation of an employee to the work environment are: efficiency and quality of work; assimilation of social and labor information; labor activity; job satisfaction, etc.

The process of labor adaptation can be influenced by both objective and subjective factors.

Objective factors of labor adaptation include conditions beyond the control of the employee: level of labor organization; labor automation; working conditions; scale of the workforce; its location, etc.

Subjective (personal) factors include: socio-demographic characteristics of the employee (gender, age, education, qualifications, work experience, social status); socio-psychological characteristics (level of aspirations, hard work, self-control, sociability, etc.); sociological (the degree of professional interest, the degree of material and moral interest in the efficiency and quality of work, the presence of an attitude towards advanced training, etc.)

One of the conditions facilitating labor adaptation is professional selection of personnel. Its purpose is to determine a person's suitability to perform a specific job.

Professional selection involves a description of the profession, drawing up a job description of the workplace, as well as a personality map reflecting the individual’s natural data, his inclinations, social, psychological and physiological characteristics.

Another condition for full-fledged labor adaptation is the availability of opportunities for the professional growth of the employee and his career. The presence of prospects for advancement up the professional and career ladder contributes to the speedy initial labor adaptation of young specialists.

In the process of industrial adaptation, the personal potential of the employee plays an important role (Fig. 3.1.2). This is a set of certain traits and qualities of an employee that form a certain type of behavior: self-confidence, sociability, the ability to assert oneself, poise, etc. that is, personal potential characterizes a person’s internal physical and spiritual energy, his activity position aimed at creative self-expression and self-realization.

Researchers note that frontline workers have the following traits: energy, the ability to manage their emotions, a willingness to openly express their opinions, and the ability to change their point of view under the influence of arguments, but not force.

Social control plays an important role in regulating the life of the work collective. Social control is called a special institution of society, designed to prevent and correct those social deviations that can disorganize public life.